Skepticism: History, Principles, and Impact on Philosophy
Skepticism: A Constant in the History of Thought
Skepticism is a constant in the history of thought, appearing and reappearing throughout the ages. Kant divides all thinkers into dogmatic or skeptical.
The Lack of Certain Knowledge
The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis. Skepticism has a significant degree of unorthodoxy in its thinking and a common basis: the affirmation of the impossibility of all true knowledge.
The Attitude of Skeptical Doubt
The attitude of skeptical doubt appeared with the
Read MoreKant’s Transcendental Idealism and A Priori Knowledge
Transcendental Conception of A Priori
Transcendental conception of a priori
A priori knowledge, according to Kant’s theory, is defined as one that is completely independent of experience, not just independent of this or that experience, but of all experience.
Now, between a priori knowledge, those to which nothing empirical has been added are called pure. For example, the proposition every change has its cause is indeed a priori; it is independent of experience. However, it is not pure a priori, since
Read MorePlato’s Philosophy: Soul, Ideas, and Political Theory
The Soul
Plato distinguishes between the body (soma) and the soul (psyche). Just as the intelligible world is the real and true world, the soul is the real and true essence of a human being. In essence, the individual is the soul. Plato proposes a tripartite division of the soul:
- Intelligible
- Irascible
- Concupiscible
Plato argues for the eternity and immortality of the soul and the possibility of reincarnation. The body is a prison for the soul, a hindrance that drags it down with passions, preventing
Read MoreOrtega’s Vital and Historical Reason: A Philosophical Analysis
Ortega’s Critique of Rationalism and Skepticism
The text examines Ortega’s critique of both rationalism and skepticism, arguing that neither can fully resolve the problem of existence and knowledge. Ortega’s vitalist and historicist system is presented as an alternative, addressing the clash between reason and life that has characterized Western thought.
Perspectivism as a Constitutive Component of Reality
For Ortega, perspective is a fundamental aspect of reality. Our understanding of reality is shaped
Read MoreAristotelian Realism: Being, Knowledge, and the Universe
Aristotelian realism is based on resolving the problem of being and knowledge. Aristotle provides a triple response to the static monism of Parmenides, the mobile philosophy of Heraclitus, and the idealism of Plato.
Aristotle’s Response to Parmenides’ Monism
Aristotle breaks from the unitary, compact, static, motionless, and undifferentiated being introduced by Parmenides. He introduces the concepts of “being per se” and “being per accidens,” as well as the notions of act and potency. Aristotle affirms
Read MoreUnderstanding Credit Ratings: From AAA to D
Investment Grade Ratings
| Moody’s | S&P | Fitch | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aaa | AAA | AAA | Very high ability to pay principal and interest. Maximum grade. Risk factors exist. |
| Aa1 | AA+ | AA+ | Added ability to pay principal and interest. Moderate risk, low.* |
| Aa2 | AA | AA | Differs little from its obligations with higher ratings. The issuer’s ability to meet its financial commitments related to the obligation is very strong. |
| Aa3 | AA- | AA- | Similar to Aa2, with slightly higher risk. |
| A1 | A+ | A+ | Good ability to pay principal and interest. Moderately high risk. |