Neural Communication: Synaptic Transmission and cAMP Signaling
Synaptic Transmission: The Release Mechanism
The action potential signal arrives at the axon terminal (the bouton). The local depolarization causes voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels to open. Calcium (Ca²⁺) enters the presynaptic cell because its concentration is greater outside the cell than inside.
The influx of Ca²⁺ triggers the release of neurotransmitters through the following steps:
- Ca²⁺ binds with calmodulin, causing vesicles filled with neurotransmitter to migrate toward the presynaptic
Understanding Human Interaction, Nerve Cells, and Systems
1. Human Interaction and Coordination
Interaction
- Essential for survival
- Internal/External Stimuli
Changes in the environment affecting the body
- Sensory Receptors
Receive stimuli
Some of them are found in sense organs
- The Nervous System (Neurons)
Information processor
Receives information from sensory receptors and initiates the appropriate response, coordinating and integrating all cell functions
- Effector Organs
Endocrine System
- Endocrine Glands
- Hormones
Musculoskeletal System
- Muscles and Bones
- Movement
2. Nerve
Read MoreUnderstanding Hormones: Functions, Types, and Regulation
Understanding Hormones and Their Functions
K. Kimicar hormones exert their action in a small equilibrium between secretion and elimination. Variations in blood hormone levels can produce alterations, and hormone removal is essential for health. Hormones are produced through urine or by destruction in the liver, and they are transported through the blood to act according to their functions.
Types of Hormones
- Regulate various endocrine glands based on their origin.
- Types include proteins and lipids.
Regulation
Read MoreClinical Management of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders
Electrolyte Imbalances: Sodium and Potassium
Sodium (Na⁺)
Sodium is the primary cation in the Extracellular Fluid (ECF).
- Regulates osmotic forces.
- Transported through cells by the sodium-potassium pump.
- Secreted into mucus and other bodily secretions.
1. Hyponatremia (Plasma Na⁺ < 135 mEq/L)
A hypotonic alteration, meaning the ECF is diluted.
Causes of Hyponatremia
- Losses from increased sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea.
- Certain diuretic drugs combined with a low salt diet.
- Hormonal imbalances (decreased
Diabetes Mellitus: Types, Insulin Function, and Complications
Diabetes Mellitus: Definition and Classification
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a chronic disease associated with poor or non-functional production of insulin in the pancreas. This syndrome is characterized by hyperglycemia, altered metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, and an increased risk of vascular complications.
Clinical Classification of Diabetes
DM is clinically classified as:
- Type 1 Diabetes (IDDM): Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus.
- Type 2 Diabetes (NIDDM): Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes
Core Concepts of Neural Anatomy and Signaling
Nervous System Structure and Function
The Nervous System (NS) maintains body temperature, monitors, integrates, and responds to information in the environment.
Divisions of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes cranial and spinal nerves.
PNS Divisions
- Sensory (Afferent) Division: Conveys impulses to the CNS.
- Motor (Efferent) Division: Conveys impulses from the CNS.
- Somatic (Voluntary) System: Serves skeletal muscles.