Kidney Anatomy and Urine Production Process
Kidney Anatomy and Structure
Kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs located on the back of the abdomen, above the waist, and on both sides of the spine. Renal arteries supply blood to the kidneys, renal veins carry blood away, and ureters transport urine to the urinary bladder. From the outside, the kidney shows the following areas:
- Renal Capsule: A fibrous, clear membrane that surrounds and protects the kidney.
- Renal Cortex: The outer, dark red zone, composed of connective tissue.
- Renal Medulla: Lighter
Nephron: Kidney Structure, Function, and Regulation
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately 1 million nephrons, which do not regenerate if destroyed. From age 40, approximately 1% of nephrons are lost each year.
Components of the Nephron
The nephron is primarily formed by the glomerulus and the tubular system.
Glomerulus
An afferent arteriole, originating from the renal artery, reaches the glomerulus and branches into glomerular capillaries. These capillaries are highly permeable—approximately 400 times
Read MoreUnderstanding Red Blood Cell Indices for Anemia Diagnosis
Red Cell Indices
Red cell indices, also known as absolute values, include Mean Cell Volume (MCV), Mean Cell Hemoglobin (MCH), and Mean Cell Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC). These are derived from hemoglobin, packed cell volume (PCV or hematocrit), and red cell count values. Automated hematology analyzers measure these indices accurately. It is crucial to correlate red cell indices with other red cell parameters like hemoglobin, hematocrit, red cell count, and other indices to rule out technical errors.
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Partition Coefficient
The partition coefficient is the ratio of concentrations of a compound between two immiscible liquids, such as octanol and water, at equilibrium.
Bioisosteres
Bioisosteres are molecules or functional groups that have similar shapes and electronic properties, often producing similar biological effects. They can be used to modify the structure of a lead compound to improve its potency, selectivity, or pharmacokinetic properties.
Classification of Bioisosteres
- Classical Bioisosteres
- Non-
Comprehensive Colorectal Cancer Treatment Options
Colorectal Carcinoma Treatment Approaches
From a therapeutic perspective, treatment strategies for colorectal carcinoma differ significantly based on the tumor’s location. Rectal carcinoma, particularly tumors within 15 cm of the anal margin, carries a high probability of local or locoregional recurrence. This contrasts with colon carcinoma, which often presents different therapeutic options. Radiotherapy (RTX) is frequently employed in the management of rectal carcinoma.
Treatment of Colon Carcinoma
Surgical
Read MoreCardiac Muscle Physiology: Action Potentials & Heart Cycle
Cardiac Muscle Physiology: Action Potentials
The resting membrane potential of normal myocardium is -85 to -95 millivolts. The action potential recorded in ventricular muscle is 105 millivolts. This means the membrane potential rises from its normal, very negative value to a positive value of +20 millivolts.
Cardiac vs. Skeletal Muscle Action Potential
There are at least two important differences between the membrane properties of cardiac and skeletal muscle that explain the prolonged action potential
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