Diabetes Mellitus: Types, Insulin Function, and Complications
Diabetes Mellitus: Definition and Classification
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a chronic disease associated with poor or non-functional production of insulin in the pancreas. This syndrome is characterized by hyperglycemia, altered metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, and an increased risk of vascular complications.
Clinical Classification of Diabetes
DM is clinically classified as:
- Type 1 Diabetes (IDDM): Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus.
- Type 2 Diabetes (NIDDM): Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes
Core Concepts of Neural Anatomy and Signaling
Nervous System Structure and Function
The Nervous System (NS) maintains body temperature, monitors, integrates, and responds to information in the environment.
Divisions of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes cranial and spinal nerves.
PNS Divisions
- Sensory (Afferent) Division: Conveys impulses to the CNS.
- Motor (Efferent) Division: Conveys impulses from the CNS.
- Somatic (Voluntary) System: Serves skeletal muscles.
Endocrine System: Functions of Key Glands and Hormones
Hypothalamus: Central Regulator of Body Functions
Regulation of Hunger and Satiety
The hypothalamus regulates hunger, appetite, and satiety through various hormones and peptides, such as cholecystokinin, glucose and fatty acids in the blood, and neuropeptide Y, among others.
- The hunger center is located in the lateral hypothalamus.
- The satiety center is located in the ventromedial portion.
Temperature Control
The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in thermoregulation:
- The anterior hypothalamus is involved
Essential Physiology: GI, Renal, Endocrine, and Sensory Systems
The Digestive System: Structure and Function
Functions of the digestive system include: ingestion, secretion, mixing, propulsion, digestion, absorption, and defecation.
Layers of the GI Tract Wall
- The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract.
- The Serosa is the outermost layer.
- The Serosa is called the visceral peritoneum in portions of the GI tract suspended in the abdominopelvic cavity.
- The Serosa is called the Adventitia in the esophagus.
Innervation and Secretions
- The lower portion of the large
Cardiac Reentry Arrhythmias and Antiarrhythmic Drug Mechanisms
Mechanisms of Reentry Arrhythmias
The following scenarios illustrate the development of reentrant arrhythmias:
- B: Interruption of Stimulus (Prolonged Refractory Period)
This represents the momentary interruption of the stimulus due to tissue damage that prolongs the refractory period. This tissue is not dead but exhibits a lengthening of the refractory period, perhaps due to localized hypoxia (lack of oxygen). The impulse in the right branch is interrupted, but the impulse in the left branch continues
Kidney Anatomy and Urine Production Process
Kidney Anatomy and Structure
Kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs located on the back of the abdomen, above the waist, and on both sides of the spine. Renal arteries supply blood to the kidneys, renal veins carry blood away, and ureters transport urine to the urinary bladder. From the outside, the kidney shows the following areas:
- Renal Capsule: A fibrous, clear membrane that surrounds and protects the kidney.
- Renal Cortex: The outer, dark red zone, composed of connective tissue.
- Renal Medulla: Lighter