Essential Cardiovascular Emergencies and Management
1. STEMI and NSTEMI
- Initial Management (MONA): Morphine (if severe pain), Oxygen (if sats < 94%), Nitrates (contraindicated in hypotension), Aspirin 300mg.
- Secondary Prophylaxis: Dual antiplatelet therapy (aspirin + clopidogrel), statins, ACE inhibitors, and beta-blockers.
2. Acute Pericarditis
- Clinical Presentation: Pleuritic chest pain, worse on inspiration and lying down; bending forward improves symptoms. Often follows a viral illness.
- ECG Changes: Widespread ST elevation (saddle-shaped) and PR
Pharmacology Principles: Mechanisms and Drug Actions
Pharmacokinetics and Drug Transport Mechanisms
Understanding Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drugs within the body. It describes what the body does to the drug. It includes Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME).
Pharmacokinetics Process Flow
- Drug Administration → Absorption → Distribution → Metabolism → Excretion
Mechanisms of Drug Absorption
Passive Diffusion
The drug moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. No energy is
Read MoreHuman Endocrine System and Hormone Functions
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate many physiological functions in the body, such as growth, metabolism, and sexual function.
What are Glands?
Glands are specialized organs or tissues that produce and secrete substances such as hormones, enzymes, or other body fluids to regulate various bodily functions. They are classified into two types:
- Exocrine Glands: These glands release substances through a duct or canal to a specific location.
Orthopedic Emergencies and Clinical Management
1. Red Flags and Emergencies (Do Not Miss)
Cauda Equina Syndrome
- Back pain and sciatica
- Saddle anesthesia or reduced perianal sensation
- Urinary retention leading to late incontinence
- 👉 Management: Urgent MRI of the spine
Epidural Abscess or Discitis Complication
- Back pain, fever, and neurological signs
- Risk factors: Intravenous drug use (IVDU), infective endocarditis
- Organism: Staphylococcus aureus
- 👉 Management: MRI; consider echocardiogram if discitis is present
Compartment Syndrome
- Pain out of proportion
Managing Ruminant Metabolic Disorders and Milk Fever
Dietary Anions for Milk Fever Prevention
Adding anions such as chloride (Cl–) or sulfate (SO42-) to the diet of dairy cows during the last 10–21 days of pregnancy is a highly effective prevention method for milk fever (parturient paresis). This practice induces a mild metabolic acidosis, which lowers blood pH and enhances tissue responsiveness to parathyroid hormone (PTH). Consequently, both bone resorption and intestinal absorption of calcium are increased.
Commonly used salts include CaCl2, NH4Cl,
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ANTI-ARRHYTHMIC DRUGS It is the improper beating of the heart, whether irregular, too fast, or too slow.
Normal range of heart beat: 60–100 bpm (normally about 72 bpm).
It occurs when electric impulses in the heart do not work properly.
Also occurs due to other heart diseases such as myocardial ischemic disease, etc.
Causes of Arrhythmia
Bradycardia (Reduced Automaticity)
↑ Parasympathetic system Sleeping Disease (Heart disease) Other drugs such as Beta blockers, antiarrhythmic drugs, etc. Conduction
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