20th Century Political Movements & Conflicts
Swastika
Composed of four arms of equal length whose ends are bent at right angles to the right, resembling the Greek letter gamma; also called esvastica. In the nineteenth century, it was believed to have been brought to India by the Aryans or Indo-European people. The German Nazis adapted the swastika as a symbol of ethnic purity. It is considered a racist emblem when used against minorities.
Fascism
A nationalistic and totalitarian political movement opposed to Marxism and liberal democracy. Its
Read MoreThe Spanish Second Republic: Reform and Instability (1931-1936)
The Spanish Second Republic (1931-1936)
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Military Reform
Abolition of the offices of Captain-General and Lieutenant General, reduction of military units, and a retirement bill for officers. Military courts of honor and the Zaragoza Military Academy were dissolved.
Religious Reform
Separation of Church and State (Articles 26 and 27 of the Constitution). Extinction of the clergy budget, dissolution of the Society of Jesus, and restrictions on teaching by religious orders.
Read More19th Century Spanish Politics: Regencies, Revolutions & Republics
The Regencies (1833-1843)
Regency of Maria Cristina and Espartero (1833-1843)
Political Landscape:
- Moderates: Shared sovereignty between the courts and the Crown, King with executive power and veto right, defense of private property, limited voting rights (census suffrage).
- Progressives: National sovereignty, limited King’s power with the ability to dissolve the courts, fewer voting restrictions, defense of freedom of press, association, and religion.
Timeline:
- 1833-1835: Moderate leader Martinez de la
19th-Century Geopolitics: Ireland, Russia, & Bismarck’s System
The Irish Question
Ireland, under English rule since the late Middle Ages, remained a nominally independent kingdom until 1800. The Act of Union then united Ireland and Great Britain within the United Kingdom. Tensions escalated in the 1870s due to economic crises and the expulsion of Irish tenant farmers from lands owned by English landlords. The rise of Irish nationalism, including Charles Stewart Parnell’s movement, further fueled the conflict. Violence spiraled, but the Kilmainham Treaty offered
Read MoreThe Russian Revolution and the Rise of the United States
The Russian Revolution (1917)
1.1 Tsarist Autocracy
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Tsarist Empire was a vast country clinging to absolute monarchy. Its economy and social structures were among the most backward in Europe. Politically, Tsarism was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar held absolute power: he ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not answer to a parliament. A powerful army and a loyal bureaucracy ensured control of the empire, while the Orthodox Church served
Read MoreThe Political System of the Restoration (1874-1898)
A New Political System
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo aimed to create a new political model, not a return to the era of Isabella II. His goal was to address the issues of liberalism. His objectives were twofold: to develop a constitution establishing a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict. The first step was convening elections for a Constituent Cortes.
The Constitution of 1876
This constitution reflects doctrinaire liberalism, characterized
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