The Russian Revolution and the Rise of the United States
The Russian Revolution (1917)
1.1 Tsarist Autocracy
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Tsarist Empire was a vast country clinging to absolute monarchy. Its economy and social structures were among the most backward in Europe. Politically, Tsarism was an autocracy, meaning the Tsar held absolute power: he ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not answer to a parliament. A powerful army and a loyal bureaucracy ensured control of the empire, while the Orthodox Church served as a major ideological pillar of the regime. Agriculture was the primary economic activity, and land ownership was concentrated in the hands of a privileged aristocracy. The majority of the population were farmers living under near-feudal conditions, condemned to squalid living standards.
In some areas of the empire, an industrialization process driven by foreign capital had begun. This led to the emergence of a large industrial proletariat working in factories for miserable wages. Among these workers, Marxism and the Social Democratic Party, founded in 1898, gained traction. In 1912, the party split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, advocated for a social revolution in Russia.
1.2 The February Revolution
Russia’s involvement in World War I created the conditions for a revolutionary explosion. The economy, organization, and political and military structures were unprepared for such a long, arduous, and costly war. Military disasters unfolded. The mobilization of millions of farmers led to a decline in agricultural production at a time when most financial resources were devoted to the war. As a result, hunger spread in the cities and unrest grew among peasants and workers. This discredited Tsar Nicholas II and his government. The population became demoralized and began organizing into Soviets, councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers who demanded the Tsar’s withdrawal from the war and the end of the autocracy.
The Fall of Tsarism
In February 1917, a revolution erupted in St. Petersburg, leading to the fall of Tsarism. Power transitioned to a provisional government led by Kerensky and supported by the liberal parties of the Duma (parliament). This government initiated a series of reforms, and Russia became a democratic republic.
1.3 The October Revolution
The slow pace of land reform and Russia’s continued involvement in the war fueled popular discontent and strengthened the Bolsheviks, who sought to overthrow the provisional government and establish socialism. The Bolsheviks championed the formation of a government of workers’ and peasants’ Soviets. Their program promised peace, land distribution to farmers, worker management of factories, and the nationalization of banking and transportation.
On October 25th, driven by the Soviets, the Bolsheviks seized power and overthrew the provisional government in ten days. With the support of the Soviets, Lenin formed a workers’ government.
The new Soviet government implemented its first revolutionary measures: lands were expropriated and distributed among farmers, and factories came under the control of worker committees. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) was signed with Germany, leading to significant territorial losses for Russia.
The Rise of the United States
2.1 Consequences of World War I
The United States emerged as a primary beneficiary of World War I. During the war, the sale of food, weapons, and industrial goods to the Allies allowed the country to accumulate half of the world’s gold reserves, and the dollar became a strong currency. In contrast, human losses were small compared to other belligerent nations. By the end of the war, the United States had become the leading global economic power. Agricultural production was very high, and its industry represented 44.8% of global production. This opened up international markets for American products, leading to their dominance. Additionally, many European countries were indebted to the United States due to war loans. World War I impoverished European countries, causing a decline in agricultural and industrial production, forcing them to cope with war loans and currency devaluation.
2.2 American Prosperity
American growth continued for ten years following the war, marking a decade of prosperity and the strengthening of the American Way, based on mass consumerism. The United States became a haven for millions of immigrants from around the world.
Increased Consumption, Growth, and the Stock Market
The expansion of the United States was based on a transformation in the production process, dominated by technical innovation. On the one hand, Taylorism and Fordism helped increase productivity and reduce costs. On the other hand, rising wages, advertising campaigns, purchasing terms, and bank loans ushered in the era of mass consumption.
Prosperity was reflected in the strength of the stock market. Euphoria generated a speculative bubble, meaning an increase in share value driven by rising demand rather than actual increases in industrial profits.