The Restoration System in Spain: Reforms, Opposition, and Nationalism
1. The Dynastic Reformism
1.1. The Failure of the First Regenerationist Government
In 1899, Maria Cristina entrusted the formation of a government to Francisco Silvela (conservative), who then called for elections. A reform policy was instituted, but it also included a budget policy that increased taxes on essential products and created new taxes to pay for debts left by the war in Cuba. In Catalonia, this led to a boycott through non-payment (closed boxes). The Conservative government remained in
Read MoreThe Tragic Week and the Catalan Commonwealth (1909-1925)
The Tragic Week of Barcelona (1909)
The Moroccan Conflicts
From 1900, Spain consolidated its presence in North Africa. The Algeciras Conference (1906) and the Franco-Spanish Treaty (1912) established a Franco-Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Spain was tasked with administering and pacifying the Rif region (a mountainous area in the north). Spanish interests lay in economic benefits and maintaining a standing army, weakened after the Cuban War. In 1909, Spanish troops suffered a significant defeat
Read MoreThe Dictablanda and the Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic
The Dictablanda
On January 28, 1930, Primo de Rivera resigned, and King Alfonso XIII attempted to redirect the situation by forming a provisional government headed by General Dámaso Berenguer. This was the first step in the transition away from the constitutional regime. Political parties, representing a significant barrier (as dynastic parties had failed), were re-emerging, and the labor movement was revived.
The biggest problem was the Crown itself, which had been too involved in the dictatorship
Read MoreAmerican & Spanish History: Revolutions & Power Shifts
The American Revolution and the Birth of the United States
The Declaration of Independence
The thirteen English colonies established on the east coast of North America in the eighteenth century staged the first successful uprising against a colonial power. This revolution established the first government founded on principles of equality and liberty. On July 4, 1776, delegates from the thirteen colonies gathered in Philadelphia and drafted the Declaration of Independence, with its preamble penned
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: From Conservative Rule to Civil War
The Conservative Biennium (1933-1936)
Lerroux’s Government and the Rise of the CEDA
In April 1934, President Lerroux’s government dissolved, replaced by a temporary administration under Ricardo Samper Ibanez. By October, the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right (CEDA), led by Gil-Robles, forced Samper’s resignation and formed a new government with three CEDA ministers under Lerroux, with Niceto Alcalá Zamora as president. This government attempted to reverse social legislation, particularly
Read MoreThe Labor Movement and the Rise of Socialism
The Labor Movement
The 18th century in England saw significant changes in the workplace. With the introduction of the freedom of production, which allowed for new manufacturing outside of union rules, traditional craftsmen lost their privileges. Factory owners dictated the conditions of production and hiring, leading to low wages and exhausting workdays. This sparked conflict and the emergence of workers’ associations formed by artisans facing proletarianization.
Luddism: Anti-Industrialism
Captain
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