The Restoration System in Spain: Reforms, Opposition, and Nationalism
1. The Dynastic Reformism
1.1. The Failure of the First Regenerationist Government
In 1899, Maria Cristina entrusted the formation of a government to Francisco Silvela (conservative), who then called for elections. A reform policy was instituted, but it also included a budget policy that increased taxes on essential products and created new taxes to pay for debts left by the war in Cuba. In Catalonia, this led to a boycott through non-payment (closed boxes). The Conservative government remained in power until 1901 when Maria Cristina turned to the Liberals, leading to the rise of tornisme. The Restoration system had survived the disaster of 1898.
1.2. The Reforms of Maura and Canalejas
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. Following Sagasta’s death in 1903, Maura (conservative) came to power. The Liberal Party consolidated under José Canalejas. Tornisme persisted, making true democratization of the regime impossible. In 1904, Maura became head of government and proposed reformist and innovative policies. He reformed the government to prevent a popular revolution, aiming to create a strong state capable of effective governance, supplanting the power of the warlords. He introduced the Electoral Law of 1907, but these efforts ultimately failed. Maura also attempted to attract nationalists to the regime. The Maura Act for internal colonization was promulgated to stimulate agriculture. He also passed the Sunday Rest Act and created the National Institute for Social Security (1908), dedicated to workers’ insurance. The brutal repression following the 1909 revolt led to Maura’s downfall. In 1910, José Canalejas formed a new liberal government. His program included the modernization of politics and attempts to attract Republicans and Socialists. He aimed to limit the power of the Church, separating it from the state, and enacted the Candado Act, which restricted the establishment of new religious orders. In social policy, a progressive income tax replaced consumption tax. Conscription became universal, eliminating the redemption payment. Laws were enacted to improve working conditions, such as regulations on women’s labor. Canalejas was receptive to regional autonomy, particularly Catalan nationalism, recognizing that its integration into the system would enhance stability. The Liberal government drafted the Law of Commonwealths, which accepted the possibility of provincial unions. However, this was not implemented due to Canalejas’ assassination by an anarchist in 1912.
2. The Opposition Forces
2.1. Republicanism
Republicanism was the main opposition force but suffered from fragmentation. In 1903, the Republican Union, led by Salmerón and Lerroux, was formed. In 1906, Salmerón joined the Catalan Solidarity coalition, which achieved significant success. Lerroux rejected this approach and founded the Radical Republican Party in Barcelona, which held anti-Catalan, populist, revolutionary, and anti-clerical stances. Collaboration between the PSOE and republicans led to the creation of the Republican-Socialist Conjunction in 1909, which performed well in the 1910 elections. In 1912, a new republican group emerged, the Reformist Party, founded by Melquiades Alvarez and attracting intellectuals like José Ortega y Gasset and Manuel Azaña, but it remained small.
2.2. Nationalisms: Catalonia and the Basque Country
In Catalonia, the Regionalist League (conservative), led by Enric Prat de la Riba and Francesc Cambó, achieved considerable electoral success and governed the Commonwealth of Catalonia. A Catalan republican movement also developed, including the Republican Nationalist Federal Union and the Republican Center. Opposition to anti-Catalanism led to the formation of Catalan Solidarity (Catalanists, Carlists, and Republicans), which performed well in elections. The Catalan Republican Party, led by Lluís Companys, also emerged. However, the Catalan Republican Party was electorally defeated by the League until 1931, when its merger into a new party, the Republican Left of Catalonia, secured victory. Basque nationalism was marked by disputes and divisions within the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) regarding separatism, autonomy, and Catholicism. The PNV became the Basque Nationalist Communion. Later, the PNV was revived, and Basque Nationalist Action was created. Despite political fragmentation, the Basque Country experienced significant economic growth. The PNV established its own union, Basque Workers’ Solidarity, to attract workers and counter socialist influence. Basque nationalism began to gain parliamentary representation.
2.3. The Liberal Right: Carlism
Carlism maintained a presence. In 1909, Carlos de Bourbon died and was succeeded by his son Jaime. Internal disputes were frequent. Juan Vázquez de Mella created the Traditionalist Party. The Catholic National Party, or Integrists, represented another Carlist splinter group. Carlist support was concentrated in Navarre, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Andalusia. Both Integrists and Carlists achieved parliamentary representation. The liberal right called for a dictatorship to impose social order and later supported Primo de Rivera. With the advent of the Republic in 1931, Carlists, Traditionalists, and Integrists reunited as the Traditionalist Communion.