Spain’s Second Republic: Rise, Fall, and Legacy
Proclamation of the Second Republic
The municipal elections of April 12, 1981, resulted in a clear victory for Republican parties. On April 14, the monarchy was abolished, and the Second Republic was proclaimed, met with enthusiasm by much of the Spanish population. A provisional government, led by Niceto Alcalá Zamora, was formed and promised general elections with universal male suffrage (over 23 years old) on June 28, 1931, to form Constituent Cortes.
This general election saw a 65% voter turnout
Read MoreConfirmation of Charters after First Carlist War: Analysis
Law of Confirmation of Charters Analysis
We are introduced to discuss a text titled “Law of Confirmation of Charters,” which shows us the decisions taken by Parliament and approved by Queen Maria Cristina de Borbón regarding the maintenance of the charters after the First Carlist War (1833-1839). Dated October 25, 1839, shortly after signing the Convention of Vergara.
The commentary will proceed as follows: location of the text, analysis, and contextualization. It ends with brief conclusions, noting
Read MoreSpain’s Dictatorship (1923-1930): An Overview
14.1.b) The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
In 1923, Spanish society and politics were in a crisis situation, untenable since 1917. On September 13, Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera, proclaimed a state of war. The government resigned, and the king handed power to the rebels, consummating the coup, which was favorably received by most Spaniards.
Primo de Rivera’s manifesto announced a new system, tentatively led by the military. Unlike 19th-century coups, it aimed not for a mere
Read MoreRise of Fascism and World War II: Causes, Ideologies, and Global Conflict
Crisis of Democracy and the Emergence of Fascism
3.1 The Crisis of Democracy
Read MoreWorld War I, pacifism, and optimism acknowledged the triumph of freedom. The empires of the defeated acknowledged the right to independence by various nationalities, and the creation of the League of Nations assumed that war would not recur. However:
- The Russian Revolution encouraged the world proletariat to the revolutionary conquest of power and the replacement by the dictatorship of the working class.
- The harsh economic
Rise of Italian Fascism: Mussolini’s Power and Transformation
Fascist Dictatorship
In 1925, Mussolini began transforming Italy into a totalitarian, fascist state, where the party and state were fully identified. A law appointed Mussolini prime minister, granting him extensive powers: to appoint ministers, legislate by decree, and control the entire executive branch. In 1926, Rocco’s law banned all parties and unions except for the fascists. Parliament’s authority passed to the Fascist Grand Council (the party’s governing body), and parliament was replaced by
Read MorePacific War (1879-1884): Campaigns, Causes, and Consequences
Campaigns of the Pacific War (1879-1884)
Occupation of Antofagasta (1879): 2,000 Chilean soldiers, commanded by Colonel Emilio Sotomayor, took control of Antofagasta, Tocopilla, Mejillones, and Calama. Bolivia’s Cobija was blockaded, leaving it without Pacific access. Chile gained control of the region’s nitrate industry.
Maritime Campaign (May-October 1879): The navies of Chile and Peru clashed in several key battles:
- Naval Battle of Iquique (May 21): The Chilean corvette Esmeralda fought the Peruvian