17th & 18th Century Spain: Crises, Economy, Enlightenment
Crisis of 1640
Among the objectives of Philip IV’s favorite, the Count-Duke of Olivares, was to restore the Hispanic monarchy’s prestige. However, costly wars depleted resources, leading to increased taxes in Portugal and Aragon. Olivares aimed to standardize Spanish law, extending Castilian law to these territories.
The proposed Union of Arms required these kingdoms to contribute men or taxes for a standing army. The Catalan Cortes refused. Taking advantage of the Thirty Years’ War, Olivares sent
Read MoreWorld War I: Stages, Consequences, and Key Treaties
Stages of the War of Movements (Guerra, 1914)
The German Schlieffen Plan aimed to avoid a two-front war by quickly defeating France and then focusing on Russia. German generals planned to advance through Belgium, then south and southeast towards the French army.
Trench Warfare (1915-1917)
After the failed German invasion of France, the war of quick movements transitioned into positional warfare. Troops entrenched themselves in wire-fortified trenches, leading to immense suffering and attrition. The
Read MoreSpanish Monarchy & Liberalism: 18th-19th Century Transformations
Spanish Sovereigns (1788-1931)
The Spanish sovereigns during this period were: Charles IV (1788-1808), Fernando VII (1808-1833), Isabel II (1833-1868), Alfonso XII (1875-1885), and Alfonso XIII (1886-1931), along with José Bonaparte (1808-1813) and Amadeo of Savoy (1871-1873).
Governments and Key Events
Key events and government changes were driven by:
- The War of Independence (1808-1814)
- The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820)
- The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
- The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
- The Reign of Isabel
Great Britain: History, Geography, and Culture
Geographical Outline of Great Britain
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland covers an area of some 244,000 square miles. It is situated on the British Isles, separated from Europe by the Strait of Dover and the English Channel. The British Isles are washed by the North Sea in the east and the Atlantic Ocean in the west.
The population of Great Britain is about 60 million. The largest cities are London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, and Edinburgh.
The territory of Great
Read MoreDemocratization of Spain and the 1978 Constitution
Spanish Transition and the 1978 Constitution
Franco’s death marked the beginning of a new era in Spain: the transition to democracy. Preventing societal collapse was a priority, supported by the Crown and anti-Franco sectors. However, the struggle between reformists and those seeking a complete break caused a crisis.
The dictator’s demise triggered institutional succession. Juan Carlos de Borbón was named King on November 22, 1975. The monarchy, legitimized by Franco, ensured control of the state
Read More19th Century Spanish Political Landscape: Moderate Decade & Progressive Biennium
Moderate Decade
Constitution of 1845 | Moderate Legislative Approach |
The Constitution of 1845 –, a prototype of moderate or conservative governance, stands as one of the most effective constitutions in the history of Spanish constitutionalism. While inspired by the 1837 Constitution, it is considerably more conservative. Key features include: significant royal power, a confessional state, census suffrage more restrictive than in 1837, a non-life term Senate, limited freedoms (excluding freedom of the |