Gothic Art and Architecture: 12th-15th Centuries
Gothic Art
Historical Context
Gothic art began in the mid-twelfth century on the Île-de-France and was the dominant style in Europe between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries. These centuries coincided with a spectacular development of trade, both local and long-distance, which led to the growth and prosperity of cities. This process had begun in the eleventh century but reached its heyday in the thirteenth century. It was no accident that the most representative building of the Gothic era was
Read MoreThe Great Depression: Causes, Consequences, and Global Impact
Economic Imbalances of the 1920s
In 1920, a crisis began that brought down prices and expectations. Anglo-Saxon countries, including those who had remained neutral in the war, like Japan, proposed to regain a sound economy based on a stable currency, but only partially succeeded. In Germany, a completely chaotic monetary system emerged, causing the currency to lose value and wiping out private savings. Companies had to resort to foreign borrowing to survive, a fact that placed Germany in a position
Read MoreThe Spanish Restoration: Monarchy, Politics, and Society (1874-1923)
The Shift to Conservatism and the Rise of Alfonso XII
The First Spanish Republic experienced a clear conservative shift with the new government of Emilio Castelar, who had been moving away from the Federalists and their reformist agenda. Castelar suspended parliamentary sessions and ruled authoritatively, supporting the most conservative elements and giving wide powers to military commanders to maintain public order. In this situation, a significant section of the members of Parliament reached an
Read MoreWorld War I: Causes, Strategies, and Aftermath
Main Causes of the First World War
- The industrial development and stiff competition, which generated rivalries between countries.
- The strong sense of nationalism that swept Europe and the economic and political rivalry that involved the great powers.
- The process of militarization and the spiraling arms race that characterized international society during the last third of the nineteenth century, stemming from the creation of antagonistic blocs.
Form of Organization
Europe’s politicians were thinking
Read MoreSpanish Monarchy in the 17th Century: Politics, Society, and Culture
1. Government of the *Validos*
The Austrian monarchs who reigned in the 17th century were: Philip III (1598-1621), Philip IV (1621-1665), and Charles II (1665-1700).
The main innovation in the functioning of the political system of the Spanish monarchy in the 17th century was the *validos*. The *validos* were members of the aristocracy in whom the king placed his trust. The king turned away from the work of government, and the *validos* made major decisions.
Two reasons explain their appearance: the
Read MoreSpanish Parliamentary Institutions: Cortes of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre
Section 1: The Cortes: Origin, Rationale, and General Characteristics of its Operation
The Spanish parliamentary institution, whose age makes the Castilian Cortes rival in their origin with the courts of England (House of Lords). The origin of parliamentarism in Castile and England is not definitively known. The legal nature of the Cortes is discussed or considered controversial because they are those containing the character of a parliament that somehow controls the king’s power. Those who only
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