Bourbon Reforms: Centralization, Uniformity, and State Control
Reforms in the Organization of the State
Centralization and Uniformity
The monarchy’s government reform was based on two main principles: centralization and uniformity. Centralization meant that government action should originate from the king and his ministers. Uniformity implied that these measures should apply equally to all subjects. Both principles aimed to prevent local and provincial privileges, requiring a series of reforms to be implemented.
Relegation of the Habsburg System
The traditional
Read MoreCauses and Consequences of Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
The Causes of Military Coups: The Case of Primo de Rivera
Primo de Rivera, and his supporters (military, political parties close to the monarchy, and the ruling classes of the nineteenth century) defended his actions as a solution to end the political crisis and social unrest across the country. The reasons justifying the coup include:
- Instability and blockage of the parliamentary political system, as well as its lack of prestige due to ongoing election fraud.
- Fear of a social revolution among the
US Electoral Process, Interest Groups, Congress, and Presidency
Chapter 9: Campaigns, Nominations and Elections
The American electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party-centered to being candidate-centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, an incumbent usually enjoys an advantage over a challenger,
Read MoreSpain’s 1808 Crisis: War and Political Revolution
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and Political Revolution
At the beginning of the reign of Charles IV, the French Revolution (1789) caused fear throughout Europe that revolutionary proposals would spread. Relations with France went through three stages:
- Stage One (Neutrality) (1789-1792): Revolutionary ideas reached Spain, and the governments of Charles IV opted for neutrality and repression, but these ideas penetrated the learned and the people.
- Stage Two (War) (1792-1796): In 1792, Charles
Spain’s 19th-20th Century: Restoration, Crisis, and Regeneration
Spain Without Pulse
The text is a contemporary testimonial narrative, journalistic in style, written by Francisco Silvela, successor to Canovas del Castillo as head of the Conservative Party.
The Restoration and its Foundations
The restoration was based on a liberal parliamentary system. The 1876 constitution, of modest nature, provided for shared sovereignty between the Courts and the Crown. The courts were organized into two chambers: the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. It proclaimed the Catholic
Read MoreKey Figures and Movements That Shaped History
Major Achievements
- Dr. Charles Drew
- Separated blood into cells and plasma, revolutionizing blood banks and transfusion techniques.
- Trained Black surgeons.
- Lise Meitner
- First female professor of physics in Germany.
- Contributed to the discovery of nuclear fission, explaining how uranium atoms split when bombarded with neutrons.
- Katherine Johnson
- Helped launch the first American in space and supported John Glenn’s orbital mission.
- Developed navigation equations for spaceflight return trajectories.
- Sylvia Rivera
- Fought