World War II Turning Points and Non-Aligned Movement
Nazi Defeat and Allied Advances
The Nazi defeat in the spring of 1943 significantly altered the war’s trajectory. The economic, military, and human resources of Great Britain, the USA, and the USSR became decisive. Allied offensives forced the Germans into a defensive posture. These were complemented by two new strategies: widespread bombing of German cities and increased antifascist resistance in occupied territories.
In 1943, the Allied campaign began with the invasion of Sicily and the subsequent
Read MoreSpanish Restoration: Political System and Opposition
The Pact of Pardo and Political Dynamics
When Alfonso XII died in 1885, the two parties signed the Pact of Pardo. Representation in Parliament was divided between a majority for the ruling party, the presence of all heads of tendency of the opposition party and a number of minority members for the rest of the system partidos. Así operation was based on:
- The performance of the Crown as an arbitrator between the two parties.
- The electoral distortion, through the box and rigging.
The introduction of universal
Read MoreGeneral Weyler: Total War, Cuba, and US Intervention
General Valeriano Weyler and Total War in Cuba
In early 1896, the Conservative Government of Cánovas, seeking a victory against armed insurgents in Cuba prior to colonial reform, appointed General Valeriano Weyler to command Spanish troops. Weyler, known for his harsh suppression of the nationalist uprising in the Philippines, had previously served as Captain of the Canary Islands (1878-1883).
Weyler’s strategy in Cuba was to wage a total war of annihilation. To cut off support for rural independence
Read More17th Century Europe: England, Netherlands, and Spain
England in the 17th Century
At the beginning of the 17th century, the new dynasty that ruled in England, the House of Stuart, tried to impose Absolutism. This led to a confrontation between the Monarchy and the Parliament and to a period of instability. There were two Revolutions (in 1640 and in 1688) and a succession of important events such as the execution of King Charles I (1649), the Protectorate of Cromwell, the restoration of the House of Stuart, and after the revolution of 1688, the arrival
Spain’s Democratic Sexenio, First Republic, and Bourbon Restoration
Six Years of Democracy (1868-1874)
The Revolution and the Provisional Movement
In September 1868, the Battle of Alcolea forced Queen Isabella II and Alfonso into exile. The economic and political crisis of the monarchy in Spain led to the ‘Glorious Revolution’, a military uprising that marked the beginning of a new period known as the Democratic Sexenio. This was triggered by progressives and democrats, joined by unionists. In 1869, the Cortes ratified a new Constitution based on democratic principles,
Read MoreMedieval Society and the Evolution of Governance in Spain
Government and Representation in the Medieval Era
Principal Features of the Middle Ages
Feudalism
- Nobility (lords among whom the king was chosen)
- Characteristics: Right to rule through birth, owned all the land, decided how it would be distributed and used by the people.
- Clergy (the Pope, Cardinals, Archbishops, etc., were often given fiefs by a monarch; the church became wealthy and did not have to pay taxes; monks were usually the only ones who could read and write)
- Serfs (the largest group, performed