Nationalism and Unification: Germany and Italy 1848-1871
The Expansion of Nationalism in Europe (1848-1871)
Between 1848 and 1870, two dynamic forces reshaped the map of Europe: the competition among continental powers for hegemony and the rise of nationalism in stateless nations, particularly Germany, Italy, and Poland.
France: Diplomacy in the Era of the Second Empire
In 1851, the President of the Republic, Louis Bonaparte, staged a coup d’état and was proclaimed Emperor Napoleon III, establishing the Second Empire. The Bonapartist regime was a blend
Read MoreFranco’s Regime: Social Support and Societal Changes in Spain
Social Support of Franco’s Regime
Franco’s government had many followers in all social groups, including the working class. Most of the Spanish population identified with the Franco regime or passively accepted it. The support of the regime was extensive and heterogeneous. Some of the factors that explain this huge social support for the dictator, which allowed him to stay in power for 40 years, were:
- The vivid memory of the disasters of the Civil War
- Resignation and fear
- Suppression effectiveness
- Influence
Spanish Political System: Late 19th Century
System Operation: Oligarchy and Political Bosses
The system failed because the elections were a fraud. The results were forged under the leadership of the major parties. In Spain, there were two main types of constituencies: urban and rural areas. In the city, what prevailed was abstention. In the countryside, the results were controlled by warlords. The chiefs were the people of the towns that had power. This scam was undermining the credibility of the system. The electoral system of the Restoration
Read MoreSpain Under Ferdinand VII: A Clash of Ideologies
Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism vs. Liberalism
The reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833) was marked by a constant confrontation between absolutists and liberals. The king tried to maintain absolutism, but this was impossible due to fiscal problems, the independence of the colonies, and the liberal evolution of Europe from 1830. His son’s death without issue opened a conflict between the heiress Isabel and his brother Charles, which led to the First Carlist War and the final victory of liberalism.
The
Read MoreFascism and Nazism: Origins, Characteristics, and Expansion
Italian Fascism
The causes of the rise of fascism.
Italy entered the First World War without parliamentary consent. At the end of it, the large external debt triggered rising inflation, and the demobilization of the army increased unemployment.
The traditional political parties had to cope with this delicate situation, and much of the population began to support extremist parties: the Communist Party and the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, led by Benito Mussolini.
Characteristics of Fascism
It has six
Read MoreAbsolute Monarchy in Europe: 15th to 18th Century
Absolutism was a political system that prevailed in Europe, originating in the France of Louis XIV. It was established virtually throughout the continent in the 17th and 18th centuries, constituting the so-called “Old Regime.”
Absolutism asserted that all power should be concentrated in the hands of the king, who held it fully and absolutely. It was believed that the king received power directly from God, so no one could oppose his will (the Theory of Divine Right of Kings).
There were strong advocates
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