Spain’s Liberal Regime: Reign of Elizabeth II (1844-1868)
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
This period saw the consolidation of the liberal regime. However, the exclusion of progressives from power weakened the regime, which was overthrown in the revolution of 1868.
The Moderate Reforms and the Constitution of 1845
Reforms:
- Creation of the Civil Guard in 1844 by the Duke of Ahumada
- Abolition of the elective nature of mayoralties
- Government control of the press
Constitution:
- Replaced the principle of national sovereignty with shared sovereignty, limited the power
Isabel II Reign in Spain: Politics and Economy (1843-1868)
Isabel II Reign in Spain (1843-1868): Government and Economy
1. Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
Isabel II showed a preference for the moderates. The moderates implemented doctrinaire liberalism, which held a centralizing policy aimed at standardizing the state, but it was anti-democratic and conservative. The main figure was Narváez.
Reforms:
- Creation of the Civil Guard; the militia was eliminated.
- Councils Act of 1845, which reinforced centrality.
- Reform of the tax system in 1845 with a new, more rational,
Italian Political Parties: Post-WWII Transformations
Post-WWII Transformations of Italian Political Parties
The changes in Italian society, as in all of Europe since 1945, have affected all political parties, including the Christian Democracy (CD). The CD was unable to adapt to the new social and economic status or become a party hoarder. Its position benefited the center for the duration of the electoral system of proportional representation, which hindered the establishment of parliamentary majorities and produced the consociational system in Italy.
Read MoreRadical-CEDA Biennium & 1936 Elections: Rise of Popular Front
The Radical-CEDA Biennium and the 1936 Elections: The Rise of the Popular Front
The Radical-CEDA Biennium
The 1933 elections were the first in which women voted in Spain. It is believed that they voted massively for the right, and consequently, these elections were won overwhelmingly by right-wing parties. Lerroux’s Radical Party formed a government, albeit a very weak one. The radical reforms, supported by the CEDA, consisted of dismantling the policies and reforms of the previous biennium. Land
Read MoreCold War: Characteristics, Stages, and Key Events
The Cold War (1947-1991)
Characteristics of the Cold War
Between 1947 and 1991, the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union was characterized by a tense standoff known as the Cold War. This period was marked by a state of military tension, ideological and diplomatic rivalry, without escalating into a direct armed conflict. Nevertheless, each bloc sought to impose its economic and military superiority through:
- Establishment of economic cooperation instruments: The Western bloc implemented
African Decolonization: Independence and Its Challenges
The decolonization of Africa occurred primarily after World War II. Independence brought many problems due to the artificiality of the borders drawn during the Berlin Conference (1885) and the imperialist ambitions of the former European powers. The processes of independence began after the war.
Independence in the Maghreb (North Africa)
- Libya gained independence from Italy in 1951. In 1969, Muammar al-Gaddafi led a coup and established a socialist regime. For decades, Libya became a major adversary