Basque and Navarrese Charters: Abolition of Privileges 1839-1876
The Embrace of Vergara and the Law of October 25, 1839
In 1839, the Embrace of Vergara took place. Liberal and Carlist military ranks recognized and accepted the inclusion of their officers and soldiers into the Elizabethan army. They collected a vague promise to maintain the Basque and Navarrese charters.
Convention of Vergara and the Law of October 25, 1839
This marked the beginning of the process of abolishing ancient privileges. Signed by Espartero and Maroto, it sealed the government’s commitment
Read MorePrehistory to Romanization: A Concise History of the Iberian Peninsula
Prehistory (2 Million – 1000 BC)
Known only through remnants, prehistory is a function of man and culture. It encompasses several stages:
Palaeolithic
Characterized by the use of stones, the evolution of man, a nomadic lifestyle, the beginning of language, and a lithic industry. Divided into:
- Lower Palaeolithic (2 Million – 100,000 BC): Atapuerca findings. Upright walking, manual dexterity, adaptation to the environment. Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
- Middle Palaeolithic: Homo sapiens. Use of caves,
Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church: From Pius XI to John Paul II
The Evolution of Catholic Social Doctrine
The Aftermath of Socialism’s Fall in Eastern Europe
The decomposition of the socialist world has led to a new political order in Eastern Europe. Ethnicity and nationalism, silenced during an era by the uniformity of the Soviet regime, and the severe economic crisis have led to secession and the birth of new countries, many of which now experience bloody conflicts.
Pius XI’s Encyclical *Quadragesimo Anno*
Forty years after the publication of *Rerum Novarum*,
Read MoreCosta Rica’s Political Evolution: From Colonial Times to 1949
Key Milestones in Costa Rica’s Political History
The Colonial Era and Early State Formation
- The first process in the formation of the national state occurred during colonial times.
- During the colonial period in Costa Rica, one could not speak of “social equality” because black slavery existed.
- Slavery in Central America was abolished with the Constitution of 1824.
- In the 18th century, Montesquieu developed the idea of the division of power.
- In the 17th century, reason and experience were considered the
Persian Wars & Ancient Athens: History & Culture
The Persian Wars
The Persians were a people who had settled in the country that is now Iran around 2000 BC. Under Darius I (by 485 BC), they had built a vast empire, one of the most powerful of the ancient world.
The Battle of Marathon
The Persians conquered Ionia (a Greek colony in Asia Minor). Eretria and Athens initially supported Ionia with ships and men but later withdrew their help. King Darius led an invasion against Eretria and crushed it. Then, his army landed at Marathon. The Greeks won in
Read MoreFrench Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Outcomes
The Causes of the French Revolution
In 1789, France was in a deep economic and social crisis. On one hand, since 1760 there had been poor harvests, which led to a rise in food prices and popular discontent. On the other hand, the bourgeoisie, enriched by the economic growth of the eighteenth century, was unhappy with their political marginalization. Only the privileged could hold positions of power and enjoy social recognition. Encouraged by Enlightenment ideas, the bourgeoisie sought to end the
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