Post-Revolutionary Europe: Napoleon, Revolutions, Nationalism
France Under the Directory
The Directory was forced to use strong measures to maintain control. For this reason, both royalist uprisings and radical movements (like the Conspiracy of Equals) were harshly repressed. In this context, preparations began for Napoleon’s rise, which culminated in the coup d’état known as the 18th Brumaire of 1799. He promised the French people that calm would return and that the French Revolution would end.
Napoleon’s Rise to Power
From 1802, Napoleon consolidated his power
Read More19th Century Europe: Unification, Revolutions & Labor
German Unification
Background and Influences
In the 19th century, the territory of modern-day Germany consisted of 39 states within the Germanic Confederation, where the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the most prominent powers. German national sentiment, particularly strong in the northern states, was fueled by several factors:
- Nostalgic romanticism for the German imperial past, championed by philosophers, historians, poets, and musicians.
- A common language and culture.
- A bourgeoisie
Spanish Civil War: Final Phase and Global Involvement
End of the Spanish Civil War (Feb-Apr 1939)
The tragic irony in the Civil War was that it ended as it began: with a statement from the Republican army against a government they believed had failed to represent the Nation. Many on the Republican side, such as Colonel Casado and socialist Julián Besteiro, resented the growing Communist power in the army and government and felt it was suicidal to resist the policy of President Negrín after the fall of Catalonia. On 1 February, in a desperate attempt
Read MoreOrigins and Key Events of World War II
Origins of World War II
The origins of World War II can be found in the Treaty of Versailles, which caused feelings of humiliation among the Germans and Italians, who refused to accept the restrictions imposed. This led to a desire for revenge and the rise of dictatorial political systems that favoured a new war to gain economic and political dominance in Europe.
Hostile Actions in the 1930s
In the 1930s, the authoritarian states began a series of hostile attacks against other countries:
- Asia: Japan
Spain under Charles V & Philip II: Conflicts & Iberian Union
The Empire of Charles V: Conflicts and Challenges
Internal Conflicts: Comunidades and Germanies
In 1516, Charles I received a vast inheritance, the fruit of the marriage policy of the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC). In the Iberian Peninsula, two major conflicts arose during his early reign:
- The Revolt of the Comunidades: This was a revolt by members of the Castilian Cortes, protesting the presence of foreigners in high Castilian positions and the monarch’s perceived lack of concern for Castilian issues.
Spanish Liberal Agrarian Reforms in the 19th Century
Liberal Agrarian Reform in 19th Century Spain
Liberal agrarian reform in Spain during the nineteenth century was based on four distinct policies, which often coexisted:
Key Agrarian Policies
Abolition of Lordships
Two types of lordships existed: territorial and jurisdictional. Neither aligned with liberalism’s goal of free, individual ownership. Territorial lordships implied land ownership by the lord, while jurisdictional lordships involved rights over the territory, which liberalism sought to eliminate.