French Revolution’s Aftermath: Terror, Directory, and European Restoration
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
During this period, innocent people were put to death, and many others were beaten. Victims were often forced to comply and then left to resist for their lives. This era of terror began in 1793 and concluded in 1794.
Revolutionary Societal Changes
The revolutionary spirit ushered in a new era. This included:
- A new calendar
- The replacement of state festivals and other religious symbols with those of a revolutionary character
- Significant changes in fashion
- The adoption of
Spanish Restoration: Cánovas’s System and Cuban Conflict
Cánovas del Castillo’s Liberalism and Objectives
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo aimed to articulate a new model of liberalism, addressing endemic issues of the past: the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. His two primary objectives were:
- To develop a constitution that would establish a bipartisan political system.
- To pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.
Foundations of the New Political
Read MoreKey Events of the French Revolution
The Revolution
A) The Estates-General of 1789
- People began to call for an immediate meeting of the Estates-General to deal with the crisis.
- The Estates-General was an assembly composed of representatives from the three French estates: clergy, nobility, and the commoners (Third Estate).
- The main argument was the form of voting:
- Each of the three estates, one vote (supported by the privileged)
- A vote by head (supported by the Third Estate)
- The Estates-General assembled at Versailles in May 1789.
B) National
Read MoreFrancoist Spain’s Transformation: From Isolation to Economic Growth
Francoist Spain’s End of Isolation: US Agreement
From 1948, however, the international situation began to turn in favor of the regime. The Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR led Western powers to overlook the totalitarian nature of Francoist Spain to incorporate it into the anti-communist alliance. Diplomatic pressure and trade restrictions began to fade, finally leading to favorable statements regarding Spain’s isolation.
In 1950, when negotiations had already begun between the U.S. and the Vatican,
Read MoreEuropean Transformation: Modern States & Renaissance Culture
The Modern State Emerges
- Monarchs became more powerful, reformed existing institutions, and created new ones.
- Their main objectives:
- Consolidate their authority
- Control the power of the nobility
- Administer the kingdom’s resources
- Maintain a strong position of power in relation to other monarchs
- They formed powerful armies of mercenaries and prohibited the nobles from forming their own armies.
- They strengthened bureaucracy, with officials directly under their control.
- Centralized power by creating new institutions.
Road to World War II: Aggression, Pacts, & Weimar Republic
The Road to World War II: Fascist Aggressions
Key Aggressions Leading to Global Conflict
1931: Japan Invades Manchuria
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria (China), establishing the satellite state of Manchukuo the following year. As the most powerful nation in the Far East, this marked a significant act of aggression.
1933: Germany Leaves the League of Nations
A pivotal move by the new German government in 1933 led to Germany’s withdrawal from the League of Nations. This action, following the collapse of