Age of Exploration: Discoveries, Routes, and Empires
Age of Exploration: Discoveries and Routes
In the 15th century, there were many discoveries. Marco Polo journeyed to India, China, and Japan. The rest of the world was a mystery. Maritime expeditions began in the 15th century because:
- They needed to find new trade routes to the East. In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople.
- There were technical advances:
- New maps called Portolan charts showed the coastline and obstacles.
- Navigational instruments, such as the compass, astrolabe, and quadrant, were
The Proclamation of King Juan Carlos I: A Turning Point in Spain
11. The Text Message to the Crown
This text is an excerpt from the speech by King Juan Carlos I on the occasion of his proclamation as King before the Cortes Franco on November 22, 1975, two days after Franco’s death. Prince Juan Carlos had been appointed by this dictator and his successor as King under the Succession Act of 1947, ratified by the Parliament in 1969. This is a political document, serving as a historical source of the first order to understand the transition from Franco’s dictatorship
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: Proclamation and Reforms
The Second Spanish Republic
Proclamation and Constitutional Period (1931)
On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held with universal male suffrage. The Socialists won the Republican nomination in large cities (41 of 50 provincial capitals). Given the new situation, King Alfonso XIII went into exile.
On April 14, a republic was proclaimed in several cities. In Madrid, the signatories of the Pact of San Sebastian formed a provisional government. The same day, the Ministry of Interior (in the Puerta
Read MoreThe Spanish Restoration: Cánovas, Caciquismo, and Political Decay
The Spanish Restoration: A Political Analysis
The Restoration period in Spain was shaped by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, a former Union Liberalist and deputy in the Cortes of 1869. Cánovas opposed the Constitution due to his reservations about religious freedom and universal suffrage. Beyond politics, he was also a historian who admired the English political system and sought to emulate its stability, economic development, and preservation of traditions without significant social unrest.
Cánovas’
Read MoreSpain’s Tumultuous Times: From First Republic to Monarchy
The First Republic (briefly)
It lasted less than one year, during which there were four different presidents. The main issues revolved around the desired type of republic (centralist, federalist, etc.) and another Carlist uprising. Amidst the chaos, General Pavía orchestrated another coup d’état.
The Serrano Dictatorship
While seeking a better solution, General Serrano governed for a year. However, in December 1874, General Martínez Campos engineered a coup d’état in favor of the Bourbon restoration,
Read MoreSpain’s Liberal Revolution 1833-1868: Key Events & Reforms
The Liberal Revolution in Spain (1833-1868)
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The 1844 elections gave the Moderates a majority. A government headed by Narvaez was formed, promoting policies based on the principles of moderate liberalism. The government reformed the progressive Constitution of 1837 and approved the new Constitution of 1845, which reflected the core ideas of conservatism, including joint sovereignty between the King and the Cortes. Furthermore, the government attempted to improve relations
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