Byzantine Architecture: Hagia Sophia’s Engineering Marvel
Byzantine Architecture: Hagia Sophia
What system did the Hagia Sophia use to create one of the world’s greatest examples of engineering? A system of pendentives, domes, half-domes, and exedrae.
What does the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus utilize to span its central space? Domical Vault. Gracanica Church offers an excellent example of a cross-in-square church.
Dematerializing Space
The major goal of Byzantine architecture was to dematerialize space.
Dematerialization means that the confines of
Read MoreStalinism: Ideology, Politics, and Impact
Stalinism: Ideology and Political Practice
Stalinism is the term used to describe the ideology and political practice of Joseph Stalin. It was characterized by political centralization, the use of force and violence, a cult of personality, a planned economy, and a state that oppressed the people.
The Struggle for Power
The Stalinist Dictatorship was a totalitarian regime, representing a direct attack on rights and freedoms. In 1922, Trotsky and Stalin, representing different conceptions of the revolution
Read MoreAlfonso XIII’s Reign & Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship
Alfonso XIII and the Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
The Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1931)
Alfonso XIII acceded to the throne in 1902. The political environment was characterized by:
- The crisis of Cánovas del Castillo’s political system.
- The influence of regenerationism.
- The death of Cánovas and Sagasta.
His reign is divided into two stages:
Continued Practice of Party Rotation (1902-1917)
- Until 1917, the two-party rotational system was maintained between the Conservative Party, led by Antonio Maura,
Political Freedom, Nationalism, and Revolution
Political Freedom: A Core Doctrine
Political freedom is a doctrine that advocates for a parliamentary system, national sovereignty, the separation of powers, a constitution as the fundamental law, and elections to an assembly that makes the laws. The ideological bases of political freedom are rationalism and the rights of men and women. This movement was driven by the bourgeoisie and the urban popular classes.
Nationalism and the Nation-State
Nationalism defends the idea of the nation-state.
Nation
Read MoreSpain Under Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and the Liberal Triennium
The Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
The War of Independence concluded with the Treaty of Valençay in December 1813. This treaty marked the end of the French occupation of Spain, and Ferdinand VII dethroned Joseph Bonaparte, recovering the Spanish crown. The new king, a staunch absolutist, returned to Spain. He was initially welcomed, and swiftly overturned the Court of Cadiz and its constitution, aiming to restore the Old Regime, mirroring actions taken across much of Europe after the Congress
Read MoreWar Crisis and Revolution in Spain (1800-1814)
The War Crisis of the Old Regime and Revolution (1800-1814)
Old Regime: Stage before the French Revolution, Modern.
Absolute Monarchy: The king has all the powers, supposedly given by God.
Stratified Society: Society is divided into estates. The law favored the privileged, who lived more comfortably. Two classes:
- Privileged: Nobility and high clergy (not taxed).
- Not Privileged: Peasants, bourgeoisie, and lower clergy (pay taxes).
Manorial Economy: Wealth was in the land, which was in the hands of
Read More