Carlos IV’s Reign and the Spanish War of Independence
The End of Carlos IV’s Reign
When the French Revolution broke out and Louis XVI was executed, Spain, like other European monarchies, declared war on France. Spain was defeated and had to sign the Treaties of San Ildefonso in 1796 and 1800. These treaties made Spain and France allies against the British Empire.
In 1805, the Anglo-Portuguese alliance was reinforced by the defeat of Spain and France in the naval Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon wanted to occupy Portugal in order to weaken the British position.
Read MoreWorld War I: Key Events, Peace Treaties, and Consequences
The War: A Turning Point in History
In July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, blaming them for the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir in Sarajevo.
Phases of the War
Guerrilla Warfare (1914)
Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan, rapidly advancing in the west and occupying northern France, while simultaneously attacking in the east to halt the Russian army.
A War of Position (1915-1916)
New weaponry stalled advances, leading to trench warfare and a stabilized front. Submarine attacks
Read MoreEconomic Transformation and Agrarian Change in 19th-Century Spain
Transformation of Economic Disentailment: Process and Agrarian Change
Confiscation is the term for the sale of assets, primarily belonging to the Church and town halls, carried out by the State. These assets were converted into national property and subsequently sold at public auction, with the revenues primarily used to pay off public debt. The first major confiscation was completed in 1837 by Mendizabal, targeting Church property, and raising four billion reales.
During the 19th century, Spain attempted
Read MoreSpanish Constitution of 1812: Origins and Impact
Background of the 1812 Constitution
Following the French invasion of Spain and the coronation of Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother, in 1808, the Spanish people did not recognize the legitimacy of the new government. Sovereign power was auto-conceded in the absence of King Fernando VII, through the creation of spontaneously appearing boards formed by local notables (nobles, clergy, and bourgeois) in each province. Their aim was to organize the fight against the French.
In September 1808, all meetings
Read More20th Century Europe: Cultural Shifts, Philosophical Context, and Spanish Intellectuals
Historical and Cultural Context of the 20th Century
The 20th century is characterized by multiple breaks and fractures, where economic value overrides political, ethical, and religious values. Scientific advances led to a fascinating and terrifying new world. Chemical bombs, machine guns, and tanks in World War I turned people into fodder. The Europe of scientific progress and economic prosperity disappeared on the battlefields.
Communism rose in Russia, and the U.S. and Japan gained importance as
Read MoreRestoration and Liberalism in Europe (1815-1848)
The System of Restoration: The Congress of Vienna
The great powers met under the sponsorship of the Austrian Chancellor Metternich at the Congress of Vienna. The great principles inspiring the Restoration were:
- The fundamental objective was to return to the situation prior to the French Revolution.
- Ending the principles of national sovereignty.
- A return to absolutism.
The basis was the hereditary right of monarchs deposed by Napoleon to have their thrones. In some countries, given the impossibility of
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