World War I: Causes, Course and Lasting Consequences
Causes of World War I
Long-term causes
- Militarism: Long-term build-up of armies and an arms race prepared nations for war.
- Alliances: Otto von Bismarck (19th century) helped shape alliance systems.
- Triple Entente: France, Russia, Great Britain
- Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, Austro-Hungarian Empire
- Imperialism: Competition for territories and new markets.
- Nationalism: Many nations and ethnic groups sought independence.
- Psychological causes: Governments idealized the war and promoted sentiments like love
Modern Britain: Empire, Industry, and Social Upheaval
The Birth of Modern Britain: Empire, Industry, and Identity
The British Empire was not a monolithic entity but a complex, often contradictory system that evolved through opportunism, economic ambition, and military dominance.
Adam Smith’s Skepticism:
dismissed the idea of a coherent empire, calling it a “Project of an empire”—a haphazard collection of colonies and trade networks driven by profit rather than a unified vision.
Palmerston’s Imperial Pride:
By contrast, 19th-century statesman
Read MoreNapoleon’s Defeat and the Congress of Vienna
Napoleon’s Downfall and European Reaction
Being isolated caused England to intervene on too many fronts, from Spain to Russia; it is impossible to be victorious in all of them.
Spain: The Guerrilla War
Spain: Napoleon’s military difficulties began in Spain. The Spanish people refused to accept Napoleon’s brother as king and began a guerrilla war, which earned France a continuous drain of men and resources. Also in Spain, France received military aid from England.
The Russian Campaign Disaster
Napoleon
Read MoreSpanish Crisis, Dictatorship, Republic, and the Road to WWII
Crisis of the Spanish Restoration and Dictatorship (1900-1931)
In the early decades of the twentieth century, the political system of the Restoration entered its final crisis. This crisis was manifested in:
- Popular Uprisings: Notably the Tragic Week in Barcelona.
- General Strikes: The government managed to suppress strikes and negotiate with the military.
- Government Instability: 13 governments were formed in rapid succession.
- Rural Demonstrations: The Bolshevik Triennium (1918–1922) saw land occupations.
Spanish Liberalism: Bourbon Dynasty to First Republic
Introduction: The Bourbons, a New Dynasty in Spain
The Habsburg dynasty ended in 1700 with the death of Charles II, who had appointed as his heir the French prince Philip of Bourbon, while Archduke Charles of Habsburg (Austria) claimed his rights to the throne. This led to an international conflict as the balance of power was disturbed, and within Spain, territories supported different pretenders. This resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714).
Philip V of Bourbon won the war. He
Read MoreGerman History: From Kaiserreich to Nazi Collapse
🦅 Kaiserreich and Pre-WWI Context (1890–1918)
- Wilhelmine Militarism: Kaiser Wilhelm II’s obsession with military prestige alienated socialist and democratic factions. He expanded the navy via the 2nd Naval Law (1900), provoking a costly arms race with Britain.
- Authoritarian Constitutional Monarchy: The Chancellor was unelected, answerable only to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag — creating a democratic façade masking autocracy.
- Rapid Industrialisation: By 1914, Germany overtook Britain in steel