Napoleon’s Defeat and the Congress of Vienna
Napoleon’s Downfall and European Reaction
Being isolated caused England to intervene on too many fronts, from Spain to Russia; it is impossible to be victorious in all of them.
Spain: The Guerrilla War
Spain: Napoleon’s military difficulties began in Spain. The Spanish people refused to accept Napoleon’s brother as king and began a guerrilla war, which earned France a continuous drain of men and resources. Also in Spain, France received military aid from England.
The Russian Campaign Disaster
Napoleon
Read MoreSpanish Crisis, Dictatorship, Republic, and the Road to WWII
Crisis of the Spanish Restoration and Dictatorship (1900-1931)
In the early decades of the twentieth century, the political system of the Restoration entered its final crisis. This crisis was manifested in:
- Popular Uprisings: Notably the Tragic Week in Barcelona.
- General Strikes: The government managed to suppress strikes and negotiate with the military.
- Government Instability: 13 governments were formed in rapid succession.
- Rural Demonstrations: The Bolshevik Triennium (1918–1922) saw land occupations.
Spanish Liberalism: Bourbon Dynasty to First Republic
Introduction: The Bourbons, a New Dynasty in Spain
The Habsburg dynasty ended in 1700 with the death of Charles II, who had appointed as his heir the French prince Philip of Bourbon, while Archduke Charles of Habsburg (Austria) claimed his rights to the throne. This led to an international conflict as the balance of power was disturbed, and within Spain, territories supported different pretenders. This resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714).
Philip V of Bourbon won the war. He
Read MoreGerman History: From Kaiserreich to Nazi Collapse
🦅 Kaiserreich and Pre-WWI Context (1890–1918)
- Wilhelmine Militarism: Kaiser Wilhelm II’s obsession with military prestige alienated socialist and democratic factions. He expanded the navy via the 2nd Naval Law (1900), provoking a costly arms race with Britain.
- Authoritarian Constitutional Monarchy: The Chancellor was unelected, answerable only to the Kaiser, not the Reichstag — creating a democratic façade masking autocracy.
- Rapid Industrialisation: By 1914, Germany overtook Britain in steel
Global Political Systems and 20th Century Conflicts Summary
Political Ideologies: Defining Characteristics
Socialism
- Private property accepted
- Parliamentary system with a powerful state
- Economy led by the state
- Classless society (as a goal)
- The proletariat controls the political power
Communism
- The economy and means of production are controlled by the state
- Transition achieved through revolution
- No private ownership
- Classless society
- The proletariat controls the political power
Anarchism
- No property
- Disappearance of the state and political parties
- Self-managed free associations
Origins and Outbreak of World War I
Causes of World War I
I. Intense Global Rivalry
The distribution of global power led to tremendous rivalry between major powers. These confrontations were intensified by the complex system of alliances and enmities established in Europe between 1870 and 1890.
II. The Armed Peace (1890–1914)
From 1890, the German Empire, led by Kaiser William II, launched an aggressive expansionist policy. William initiated a significant program of investment in arms and naval fleets and actively intervened in overseas