Fundamental Structural Elements and Applied Forces
What Defines a Structure?
A structure is a set of interconnected elements capable of withstanding forces and transmitting them to the support points, ensuring the system is both stable and resistant.
The forces acting upon a structure are referred to as loads.
Resistant and Stable Structures
A structure must possess resistance (the stamina to withstand loads) and stability (the ability not to fall or collapse).
A structure’s resilience is determined by its capacity to safely manage and transmit the applied
Read MoreFluid Dynamics, Colloids, and Powder Characterization
Newtonian Flow and Viscosity Principles
Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress ($\tau$) and shear rate ($\gamma$), following Newton’s law of viscosity:
$$\tau = \eta \cdot \gamma$$
Characteristics of Newtonian Fluids
- Constant Viscosity: Viscosity ($\eta$) remains unchanged regardless of the shear rate.
- Linear Relationship: Shear stress and shear rate have a direct, linear relationship.
Examples of Newtonian Fluids
- Water
- Gases
- Simple oils
Non-Newtonian Flow Behavior
Non-Newtonian
Read MoreClimatology of the Iberian Peninsula: Types and Characteristics
Key Parameters for Climate Analysis
Temperature Metrics
- Minimum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Temperatures below zero (Winter conditions, leading to rain or snow).
- Maximum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Thermal oscillation (amplitude): Maximum Mean Temperature (TM) minus Minimum Mean Temperature (Tm).
- Seasons definition: Summer (temperatures higher than 25 °C); Winter (temperatures lower than 0 °C).
Rainfall and Precipitation
- Total annual precipitation (in millimeters,
Global Environmental Challenges: Pollution, Resources, and Biodiversity Loss
Environmental Impacts of Resource Use
Living Resources and Their Exploitation
Livestock and Intensive Farming Impacts
Intensive livestock farming presents major environmental problems, including the use of treated feed, reduction in biodiversity, and significant pollution caused by slurry (manure and excrements).
Marine Resources and Fishing Challenges
Environmental problems related to fishing include:
- Fishing overexploitation.
- Use of non-selective nets and drag fishing techniques.
- Impacts from climate
Spain’s Physical Geography: Landforms and Geology
Spain’s Geographical Overview
Spain is a medium-sized European country, covering 505,990 km². Its territory comprises a mainland (97.55% of the surface), the Balearic Islands (0.99%), the Canary Islands (1.45%), and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla (0.1%).
This area exhibits significant natural diversity, characterized by a variety of terrain and climatic contrasts, as well as human diversity, reflected in an unequal distribution of wealth influenced by natural conditions, leading to diverse
Read MoreEssential Weather & Climate Terminology
Understanding Weather and Climate Basics
- Weather:
- The state of the atmosphere of a place at a particular time. It is characterized by its variability, but determined by direct observations.
- Meteorology:
- The science of weather.
- Climate:
- The average state of the atmosphere of a place. This state is caused by the usual succession of weather types at a location throughout the year.
- Climatology:
- The science of climate.
Geographical and Atmospheric Influences
- Solana:
- It refers to the sunny slopes of a mountain or