Igneous, Metamorphic Rocks: Textures, Uses, and Formation
Igneous Rock Textures and Magmatism
The magmatic texture is the overall appearance of an igneous rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of its minerals.
Plutonic Texture: All the minerals are crystallized, and the crystal size is roughly the same. This texture indicates that the magma cooled very slowly, over millions of years, allowing sufficient time for crystals to grow.
Porphyritic Texture: This texture consists of large crystals (phenocrysts) surrounded by microscopic crystals, thin and
Thermodynamics and Chemical Equilibrium: Key Concepts
Gas Laws and Properties
- For a gas with no internal order: ls-in líki2 k in ls as there is no ordn gass intrno.
- Phase change from liquid to gas involves an increase in entropy.
- Dalton’s Law: pA = p0 xA
- Avogadro’s Law: V1N2 = V2N1
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
- At constant pressure, the change in internal energy equals the heat exchanged.
- At constant pressure, the enthalpy change equals the heat exchanged plus pΔV.
- Heat involved in a constant volume process is calculated as follows.
- In general, the heat involved
Human Impact on Earth’s Resources: Water and Soil Limits
Earth’s Carrying Capacity and Resource Consumption
Carrying Capacity: This refers to the maximum number of individuals (population) that the planet can sustainably support.
Population and Resources
The concept of carrying capacity limits human population, estimated to be around billions of inhabitants, potentially coinciding with projections for the 21st century. We are approaching the limit the planet can sustain. The planet’s carrying capacity is affected by resource consumption, which is increasing
Read MoreUnderstanding Earthquakes: Origins, Measurement, and Risk
Understanding Earthquakes
Earthquake Origins
As an earthquake originates:
- Stress builds up.
- Tension increases, and materials deform.
- Materials fracture, releasing energy that vibrates the ground.
Measuring Earthquakes
Seismometers detect even very weak earthquakes that go unnoticed by people, drawing graphic seismograms. The magnitude of an earthquake is the amount of energy released, measured on the Richter scale, which is open-ended and has no limit.
Intensity vs. Magnitude
Intensity and magnitude are
Read MoreGeological Processes and Landforms: Definitions & Examples
Geological Processes and Landforms
Seismogram: A chart created by a seismograph (a device that detects earthquakes and deformations). These graphs allow us to locate the epicenter of the earthquake, its magnitude, and the depth of focus.
Subsidence: The slow and gradual sinking of the ground, often due to soil settlement after the extraction of fluids (water and oil), or by seismic liquefaction phenomena.
Collapses: Sharp vertical drops, such as the collapse of a cave resulting from the dissolution
Read MoreUnderstanding Earth’s Hydrosphere: Oceans, Rivers, and Glaciers
The Hydrosphere: Earth’s Waters
The hydrosphere encompasses all of Earth’s water.
Approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by seawater, primarily in oceans and seas.
The remaining water is found in inland rivers, lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.
Marine Waters
Marine waters differ from inland waters due to their salinity. The average salinity of the oceans is 35%. Oceans are large bodies of saltwater.
Major Oceans
- Pacific Ocean: The oldest and largest ocean, characterized by its great depth