Masterpieces of Art and Architecture
Parthenon
Chronology
447-432 BC
Style
Classic Greek style, built by Iktinos and Callicrates, under the supervision of Phidias.
Materials
Pentelic marble and wood.
Building System
Trabeated.
Preceding the Parthenon, there was an initial temple that was never finished and was replaced by the current construction. This building, done on a human scale, with a predominance of straight lines, as implied by the trabeated construction. Greek architecture took Egyptian architecture as a reference, also marked by
Read MoreItalian & German Unification: A Comparative Overview
Italian Unification
The Divided Peninsula
In 1815, the Congress of Vienna divided Italy into eight states. Austria controlled much of the north, including Lombardy-Venetia. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, with its burgeoning industries and influential bourgeoisie, emerged as a key player. This region, along with Savoy, had abandoned absolutism. Central Italy comprised four duchies (Parma, Modena, Lucca, and Tuscany) essentially satellite states of Austria. The Papal States, governed by the Pope,
Read MorePrehistory: The Dawn of Humanity
What is Prehistory?
Prehistory is the earliest stage of human history, spanning from the appearance of our first ancestors approximately 5 million years ago to the invention of writing around 5,000 years ago. The defining characteristic of prehistory is the absence of written records. It is broadly divided into three periods: the Paleolithic, the Neolithic, and the Age of Metals.
Studying Prehistory
Our knowledge of prehistory comes from surviving remnants, primarily fossils. Fossils are the preserved
Read MorePolitical and Social Upheaval in Catalonia (1902-1923)
Political Crises of the Restoration (1902-1923)
The Cu-Cut! Incident (1902-1907)
The satirical weekly Cu-Cut! published an anti-militarist joke on June 1st. In response, 300 officers from the Barcelona garrison stormed the Cu-Cut! offices, as well as those of La Veu de Catalunya and La Publicitat. The military demanded that the government cede jurisdiction over crimes against the army and the country to military courts. The government, under President Segismundo Moret, acceded to this demand in 1906.
Read MoreThe Industrial Revolution and the Labor Movement
TMA 10: The Industrial Revolution and the Labor Movement
Origins of the Labor Movement:
The labor movement was a collective effort initiated by workers to improve their working conditions and advocate for their rights. Workers formed associations to defend their interests, which later led to the recognition of their right to create trade unions. A significant step was the creation of the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA) in 1864, which aimed to unite labor organizations worldwide, although
Read MoreInsect Pests of Trees: Identification & Control
Insect Pests of Trees
Lepidoptera
Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Pine processionary)
Type: Lepidoptera
Damage: Defoliator
Affected Area: Pine shoots
Description: Early flight occurs during mild days in March-April. Adults lay eggs, caterpillars appear in May-June, and pupation occurs in July. Larvae have two stages.
Dioryctria mendacella
Type: Lepidoptera
Damage: Borer
Affected Area: Pine cones
Description: Two generations per year. Larvae develop in spring and fall. Eggs are laid, and larvae drop to the soil to