Earth’s Atmosphere: Structure, Composition, and Environmental Impacts
The Atmosphere and Its Structure
Introduction
The atmosphere, a gaseous layer surrounding Earth, is held in place by gravity. Approximately 1,000 km thick, it’s crucial for life. Let’s explore its structure:
Layers of the Atmosphere
- Troposphere: Closest to land, containing most of the atmosphere’s mass, moisture, and dust. Its thickness varies (18 km at the equator, 8 km in the Arctic). Weather phenomena like wind and rain occur here. The tropopause marks its upper boundary.
- Stratosphere: Extends from
Dam Types and Design Considerations
Definitions
Dam
An artificial structure that limits, in whole or in part, the outline of a facility located on the ground, for the purpose of storing water. For security purposes, pools of water can also be considered dams.
Raft
A hydraulic structure consisting of an artificial structure used for the storage of water outside of a channel and bounded wholly or partly by a retention dam.
Reservoir
A hydraulic structure consisting of an artificial site for limited water storage, bounded in whole or in part
Read MoreEarth’s Interior & Plate Tectonics: A Comprehensive Guide
Questionnaire: Earth’s Internal Structure
Methodology
External: Composition of surface rocks, research surveys, and laboratory experiments.
Internal: Seismology, magnetic methods, gravimetry, and astronomical methods.
Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are categorized as superficial (surface) or deep (body) waves.
Surface Waves:
- R-waves: Vibrate vertically along the direction of wave propagation.
- L-waves: Vibrate horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Body Waves:
- P-waves: Vibrate parallel to
Weathering and Sedimentary Rock Formation
Weathering
Weathering is the process of physical and chemical transformation of parent rocks and primary minerals. This process generates secondary minerals, such as clays, that form soil. Weathering involves chemical reactions where products become reagents for subsequent synthesis. Weathering at the soil surface is called edaphochemical weathering, while weathering in deeper layers (like the C horizon) is called geochemical weathering.
Schistosity
Schistosity is a physical change involving the separation
Read MoreUnderstanding Environmental Issues and Solutions
Natural Environment
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth. Key elements include the atmosphere, water, soil, vegetation, animal life, and landforms.
Artificial Environment
The artificial environment consists of human-made creations, often built by transforming the natural environment.
Environmental Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
The environment provides essential resources for human survival.
Disadvantages
Environmental challenges can
Read MoreHumanization and Hominization: The Evolution of Humankind
1. Hominization
1.1 The Process of Hominization
What is the process of humanization?
- Hominization: The biological evolutionary process where species develop increasingly similar traits to humans (Homo sapiens). A major step was the formation of hominids (7.5 Ma ago), the biological family to which our species belongs, giving rise to different genera and species.
- Hominids: All fossil species in our evolutionary line that appeared after the divergence of the chimpanzee lineage (7.5 Ma ago).