Understanding Runoff, Rivers, and Water Systems
- Runoff: The displacement of water across the Earth’s surface.
- River: A continuous stream flowing into other rivers, lakes, or the ocean.
- Channel: The path through which a river flows.
- Flow: The amount of water a river carries, measured in cubic meters per second (m3/s). This is influenced by climate, relief, lithology, vegetation, and human activity. Channel stabilization is important for accurate measurement.
- Absolute Flow: The amount of water flowing past a specific point in the river per second.
- Catchment
Understanding the 7 Types of Plastics and Ceramic Materials
Understanding Different Types of Plastics
Plastics are generally grouped into three main categories:
- Thermoplastics: These can be melted and solidified multiple times without altering their structure. Examples include PVC, methacrylate, polyethylene, polystyrene, and Polamar.
- Thermosets: Once solidified, these cannot be melted again without decomposing. Examples include bakelite, melamine, and polyesters.
- Elastomers: These materials, like natural rubber, have a great ability to deform and recover their
Earth Science Concepts: Driving Forces, Resistivity, and Rotation
Driving Forces in Plate Tectonics
- Slab Pull: Descending slab pulls the slab downwards into the mantle.
- Mantle Drag: Can be either a driving force or a restricting force, depending on the direction of the mantle movement with respect to the overlying plate.
- Ridge Push: Sum of two effects:
- Upwelling magma pushes the plates away from the ridge.
- Elevated ridges encourage gravitational sliding towards the trenches.
- Trench Suction on the Upper Plate: Vertical pull on the descending plate causes a pulling of
Earth’s Surface Shaping: Weathering and Erosion Processes
External Geological Processes on Earth’s Surface
The effect of external agents on the land surface begins with actions from the atmosphere, which disrupt and alter superficial rocks. This initial breakdown is known as weathering.
Erosion and Transport
Weathered materials rarely remain in their place of origin. Instead, they are moved by erosion and subsequent transport. The primary external geological agents responsible for erosion and transporting the resulting fragments include:
- Rivers and streams
- Ocean
Renewable & Non-Renewable Energy Sources & Mineral Impacts
Wind Energy (Renewable)
Wind energy utilizes wind turbines to generate electricity. It is a type of energy that does not emit pollution during operation. However, potential disadvantages include impacts on dry surface soil, and blades with metal components can produce electromagnetic noise and interference. It is an intermittent power source, dependent on wind availability.
Geothermal Energy (Non-Renewable)
In some locations, geothermal sources flow naturally as hot water (like in spas) or steam. In
Read MoreSpain’s Natural Features: Soils, Rivers, Climate
Soils in Spain
Soil types in Spain differ according to the predominant rock type:
- Siliceous Zone: Formed by rocks such as granite, quartzite, and slate.
- Limestone Zone: Composed of limestone, where erosion results in a karst landscape.
- Clay Zone: An area with materials like clay and clay loams.
- Volcanic Zone: Found in the Canary Islands, composed of volcanic materials.
Rivers of Spain
Cantabrian Watershed
Features numerous short rivers originating in mountains near the coast. They have an abundant and regular
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