Igneous Rocks: Formation, Textures, Magmatism and Occurrences
Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten magma either beneath the Earth’s surface or on it. Their mode of occurrence is closely related to the depth of crystallization, the nature of magma intrusion, and the environment in which the magma solidifies. Broadly, igneous rocks occur in two main modes: intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volcanic).
Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks
These rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth’
Read MoreIndian Sedimentary Basins and Sedimentary Structures
1. Sedimentary Basins
Definition: A sedimentary basin is a low-lying area of the Earth’s crust that undergoes subsidence and accumulates sediments over geological time.
Sediments may be clastic, chemical or biogenic.
Basins preserve information about tectonics, climate, provenance and resources.
2. Physiography of India and Basin Settings
India shows diverse physiographic divisions.
Major units:
- Himalayan orogenic belt
- Indo-Gangetic plain
- Peninsular craton
- Coastal plains
- Continental shelf and deep sea
Basin
Evolution of Materials: From Stone Age to Nanotechnology
The History of Materials
The history of mankind has been linked to the use of materials. For consideration, we divide history into periods, with names that refer to materials: Stone Age, Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
- Stone Age: Characterized by the use of simple materials: bones, pottery, knives, arrows, and spears of flint.
- Copper Age: Copper is obtained from malachite or chalcopyrite.
- Bronze Age: Bronze is created by mixing copper with small amounts of tin.
- Iron Age: The technology of producing
Sedimentary Structures & Rocks: Types, Indicators and Depositional Features
Unit 3a: Sedimentary Structures
Definition
Sedimentary structures are physical features formed during or just after deposition of sediments.
They give information about:
- Depositional environment
- Direction of current
- Energy conditions
- Younging direction of strata
1. Bedding
Bedding refers to layering in sedimentary rocks. Each layer is called a bed. Beds form when one layer of sediment is deposited over another. Bedding planes separate beds of different composition, texture, or color. Thickness of beds is
Read MoreFundamental Concepts and Production Methods of Global Energy Sources
∆Q=mc∆T,E=hν=hc/λ,For wind(p=1/2xroxAv*3),For Hyrdro(p=ηroVgh),solar energy= irradiance x area x time.
(1Btu=1055J,1 year=3.15×10*7s,1kWh=3.6×10*6J,c(w)
=4184Jkg-1C-1,1ev=1.6×10*-19J,h=6.625×10*-34Js)
What are the main characteristic of fossil fuels?
Ans: Fossil fuels stored a large amount of chemical energy which is converted into
various other forms of energy by burning them.
How does wind power generate electricity?
Ans: – Electricity is generated by using a wind turbine.
Wind turbine consists
Hydrology and Earth Science Calculation Reference
Hydrological Calculations and Formulas
Lysimeter Evapotranspiration (ET) Calculation
The Lysimeter method calculates Evapotranspiration (ET) based on mass change:
- Total Mass Change: (Initial Mass + Water Added) – (Final Mass + Water Lost) = 10 kg
- Daily Weight Change: 10 kg / 5 days = 2 kg/day
- Convert to Volume: 2 kg/day = 0.002 m³/day (Assuming 1 L = 1 kg and 1 L = 0.001 m³)
- Convert to Depth (m/d): 0.002 m³/day / Area of Bucket = 0.0002 m/day
- Convert to mm/d: 0.0002 m/day × 1000 = 0.2 mm/day