Medieval Iberian Peninsula: Politics, Society, and Expansion
Political Organization: Castile and Aragon
Castile
Three major political entities dominated the Iberian Peninsula: the kingdoms of Portugal, Leon, and Castile. Leon and Castile experienced periods of unification and separation throughout the 11th and 12th centuries, ultimately uniting under Ferdinand III. The kingdom of Castile encompassed Galicia, the lordship of Biscay, and the provinces of Alava and Guipuzcoa.
The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by political instability. While Alfonso XI
Read MoreAl-Andalus: A History of Muslim Spain
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
Development Policy: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
In 711, a largely Muslim invasion of Visigothic Spain occurred, establishing a vast empire with its capital in Damascus. The highest authority was the caliph, belonging to the Umayyad clan. Islamic troops swiftly conquered the peninsula (711-715), marching until their defeat by the Franks at Poitiers in 732.
Initially, political power in Al-Andalus rested with a Damascus-dependent governor.
Read MoreVenezuela After Gran Colombia: 1830
Study of the Republic of Venezuela (1830)
History of Gran Colombia
After the failure of the Second Republic of Venezuela and Simón Bolívar’s short stay in New Granada as military commander, he reflected on the causes of previous failures and how to achieve lasting independence. He concluded that the final defeat was due to Spanish efforts to prevent recapture, but creating a strong republic capable of challenging imperial powers was crucial.
Separation of Venezuela from Gran Colombia
With the national
Read MoreThe Dawn of Modern Industry: Proto-Industrialization and the Birth of a New Era
The Rise of Proto-Industry
At the beginning of the 18th century, various regions of Europe had already accumulated considerable concentrations of rural industry. In the early 1770s, a new term emerged to describe the expansion and occasional transformation of these industries: proto-industrialization. First used to refer to the linen industry in Flanders, the term was later refined and extended to encompass similar industries across time and space.
A proto-industrial economy is characterized by dispersed,
Read MoreThe Christian Kingdoms in Medieval Spain: From Stagnation to Expansion
ITEM 3: The Christian Kingdoms (1): From Stagnation to Expansion (8th to 13th Centuries)
1. Introduction
This period, spanning from the 8th to the 13th century, examines the transformation of medieval peninsular society into a medieval Christian society. Several factors contributed to this shift:
- The decline of Al-Andalus
- The territorial expansion of the Christian kingdoms
- The emergence of distinctive features in the Peninsula due to the Muslim presence
- The introduction of European Christian characteristics
Phases and Forms of Reforestation in the Iberian Peninsula
Phases and Forms of Reforestation
Stage 1: Douro Valley and Old Catalonia (9th-10th Centuries)
This stage saw the repopulation of largely uninhabited lands, including Old Catalonia and the Douro Valley.
Old Catalonia: Repopulated mainly by the former Visigothic population, with the presence of Visigothic law (Liber Iudiciorum).
Douro Valley: Repopulated by diverse groups, including Basques in the eastern part of Cantabria, who lacked a Visigothic legal tradition. This was a spontaneous repopulation,
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