The Transformation of Europe: From Old Regime to Enlightenment
Characteristics of the Old Regime
The Old Regime was characterized by the following traits:
Demographics
Birth and mortality rates were high.
Economy
The main activity was traditional agriculture, and productivity was low. Crafts were controlled by guilds. Domestic trade was limited due to the poor conditions of land transport.
Society
Society was structured by Estates. The nobility and clergy held privileges, while the Third Estate (burghers and peasants) was the only group that paid taxes.
Policy
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Administrative Divisions of Spain and Catalonia
The Territorial Organization of Spain
The current territorial organization of Spain is based on the 1978 Constitution. Title VIII, Article 137, establishes three different territorial areas:
- The Municipality (municipio)
- The Province (provincia)
- The Autonomous Community (comunidad autónoma)
The Municipality: Basic Local Government
Municipalities are the basic scope of local government and represent the oldest administrative structure. According to the INE census, there are 8,111 municipalities in Spain,
Read MoreReligious Unity and Social Structure under the Catholic Monarchs
Imposing Religious Uniformity in Spain
The monarchy of the Catholic Monarchs (RRCC) faced religious diversity where conflicts were imminent. The imposition of the Catholic faith was intended to unite the people. The name Catholic Monarchs characterizes the persistence of this situation at the time of its imposition.
Reforming the Catholic Church
The first steps toward reform were taken by Cardinal Cisneros within the Catholic Church itself. This reform targeted the higher clergy, seeking to eliminate
Read MoreGlobal Dynamics: Hazards, Development, and Economic Integration
Natural Hazards and Environmental Impact
Natural hazards are natural phenomena of many types (snow, earthquakes, storms, etc.) that occur as a result of living on a very dynamic planet. Natural hazards must be associated with human presence; that is, they must affect people or goods that we value.
The degradation of the environment plays an important role in triggering disasters. Countries experiencing deforestation, erosion, and severe overuse of marginal lands for crops are increasingly subject
Read MoreBismarck’s Diplomacy, Armed Peace, and the Rise of Colonial Imperialism
The Bismarckian System and the Armed Peace (1871–1914)
Bismarck’s Foreign Policy and the Alliance System
Following German unification, Bismarck’s policy focused on creating a series of international alliances, known as the Bismarckian System. This system aimed to isolate France, which posed a potential threat to the stability of the newly created German state, thereby affirming Germany’s hegemony in the world.
The three Bismarckian systems were built, repeatedly, through the union of three countries:
Read MoreGlossary of Agricultural, Livestock, and Land Use Terminology
Agricultural and Land Use Definitions
Extensive Agriculture Definition
Extensive agriculture is that which is practiced in regions with low population density. It requires low labor input, is minimally mechanized, and utilizes large spaces for growing various products.
Intensive Agriculture Characteristics
Intensive agriculture produces huge quantities of products continuously in reduced spaces. It is characterized because it increases productivity in a short time, using irrigation, fertilizers, and
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