Oral Microbiology: Bacteria, Protozoa, Fungi & Clinical Relevance
Bacterial Cell Wall Differences: Gram-Positive vs. Gram-Negative
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick murein layer, varying among species. They possess teichoic acids and a low protein content. Gram-negative bacteria have a single murein layer and lack teichoic acids. Both types share a peptidoglycan cell wall for shape and protection.
Bacterial Grouping and Staining
Bacteria group as diplococci (pairs), streptococci (chains), or staphylococci (clusters). Gram staining uses gentian violet, iodine, alcohol,
Read MoreInnate Immune System: Functions and Cells
Innate Immune System Overview
The innate immune system provides a non-specific defense against infections. Unlike the adaptive immune system, it doesn’t confer long-term immunity. Found in all plants and animals, it’s considered an ancient defense strategy.
Major Functions in Vertebrates
- Recruitment of immune cells via cytokines.
- Activation of the complement cascade to eliminate pathogens and dead cells.
- Removal of foreign substances by leukocytes.
- Activation of the adaptive immune system through antigen
Macronutrients and Micronutrients: Functions and Sources
Lipids: Macromolecules of Carbon and Hydrogen
Lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils, are characterized by a relative lack of oxygen. Main types include:
Triglycerides
Primary components of fats, formed by glycerol and three fatty acids.
Classification of Triglycerides
- Saturated Fatty Acids: Found in animal sources, linked to cardiovascular issues.
- Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Plant-based, divided into:
- Monounsaturated: Single double bond (e.g., oleic acid in olive oil).
- Polyunsaturated: Multiple
Ecosystem Fundamentals: Biomes, Habitats, and Adaptations
Biosphere: The Realm of Life
The biosphere encompasses all areas on Earth where life exists.
Biomes: Distinct Ecosystem Regions
Biomes are large regions characterized by specific climates and dominant plant and animal communities.
Ecosystems: Interacting Components
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biocoenosis) interacting with their physical environment (biotope).
Biotope: Abiotic Factors
- Physical elements like soil, water, and air.
Biocoenosis: Biotic Factors
- Living organisms categorized
Structure and Function of the Cell Nucleus
Nucellus in Interface
Presents nuclear envelope and developed chromatin fibers. The core has a very active K and occurs for later transcription translation. Also, before division occurs, DNA duplication takes place. We also find the nucleoplasm and the nucleolus or nucleoli. When the nucleus is in division, it presents some major changes. The condensed chromatin fibers give rise to structures called chromosomes. Then, the nuclear envelope will also change. In this way, the chromosomes remain immersed
Read MoreGene Expression and Protein Synthesis Essentials
Genetic Code Essentials
The genetic code defines the relationship between nucleotide triplets (codons) and amino acids (AA). It operates in the 5′ to 3′ direction. Most codons are synonymous, meaning multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. There are 64 possible codons, with 61 coding for amino acids.
Regulation of Gene Expression
Cells regulate gene expression to control when proteins are produced.
DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process of duplicating DNA in each cell generation. It
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