Understanding the Excretory and Urinary Systems
Excretory System
The excretory system is responsible for removing toxins and wastes from our body.
The excretory system consists of the urinary tract, lungs, and skin.
The excretory system should be added to the large intestine or colon, waste that accumulates in the feces to be excreted through the anus.
Urinary System
The excretory system is a set of organs responsible for the elimination of nitrogenous waste products of metabolism known as urine, in the form of urea and creatinine. Its architecture
Plant Biology: Nastic Movements, Reproduction, Pollination, Nutrition
The Nasties: Nastic Movements
Nastic movements in plants are responses to stimuli, determined by the plant’s organ structure. These reactions are rapid and reversible, triggered by various stimuli like light, temperature, or touch. Examples include photonasty (response to light) and thigmonasty (response to touch).
Reproduction in Bryophytes
Bryophytes are seedless, nonvascular plants that require a moist environment for growth and reproduction. The dominant phase is the gametophyte (sexual phase),
Read MoreEcosystem Dynamics: Energy Flow and Adaptation
Ecosystems: Energy and Matter
Ecosystems function as factories requiring energy and matter. Matter exists as abiotic (inert) and biotic (organic) components. Energy, primarily from the sun, is captured by autotrophs (producers) through photosynthesis. Energy is lost as heat or waste. Heterotrophs (consumers) obtain energy by consuming organic matter. Consumers include herbivores (primary), carnivores (secondary and tertiary), and decomposers (fungi and bacteria).
Trophic Relationships:
- Food chains
Protein Structure, Function, and Analysis
Proteins
Formed by amino acids (aa) with an amino group (bases) and a carboxyl group (acid).
The essential aa are synthesized by the body.
AA differ in the structure of side chains (R groups).
Amphoteric character: behave as charged or uncharged particles depending on the pH.
Acid pH
Positive charge
Basic pH
Negative charge
Hybrid or zwitterion ion: dipole with zero charge.
PI (Isoelectric Point)
- aa with zero net charge
- aa > 2 units per PI: net negative charge
- aa < 2 units per PI: net positive charge
- Ethernet
Bacterial Physiology and Viruses: Structure and Life Cycles
Bacterial Physiology
Bacterial culture media are aqueous solutions with salts, minerals, and organic nutrients. These components support bacterial metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Bacteria are cultivated in liquid media in test tubes. Like all living beings, bacteria perform nutrition, interaction, and reproduction functions.
Functions of Nutrition
Bacteria exhibit diverse metabolic types: photoautotrophs (e.g., green bacteria, cyanobacteria), photoheterotrophs (requiring light and organic molecules)
Read MoreEssential Biomolecules: Structure and Functions
Defined Functions of Living Beings
Nutrition: Exchange of matter and energy with the outside.
Reproduction: Leaving offspring, keeping the species.
Response to Stimuli: Engaging; layers respond to stimuli.
Bioelements
All living things have a restricted group of chemical elements (C, H, N, P, S) to build molecules with special properties. These constitute 98% of their weight.
Trace Elements (Ca, K, Mg, Cl, I, Cu, Zn, Fe) are indispensable, even in low proportions.
Biomolecules
Combination of bioelement
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