Cellular Respiration and DNA: The Building Blocks of Life
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the set of biochemical reactions occurring in most cells. Pyruvic acid, produced by glycolysis, is split into carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), producing 38 molecules of ATP. The general formula is: C6H12O6 + 6O2 —-> 6CO2 + 6H2O, releasing 38 ATP molecules in eukaryotic cells. This process occurs in the mitochondria in three stages:
- Oxidation of pyruvic acid
- Tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
- Respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation
Cell Biology: Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the part of the cell contained between the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane. It consists of the hyaloplasm (cytosol) and organelles, with a cytoskeleton immersed within. The hyaloplasm is a 70-85% water solution, with the remaining 15-30% composed of dissolved or suspended components: carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, proteins, nucleosides, nucleotides, nucleic acids, mineral salts, and ions.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of long, thin protein filaments
Read MoreGenetic Engineering and Immunology
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the manipulation of DNA to change the genome of a living being. Changes include:
- Introducing new genes into a genome
- Deleting existing genes from a genome
- Modifying the information contained within a gene
- Changing gene expression
- Cloning beings, organs, or tissues
Cloning
Cloning is making a genetically identical copy (may be a gene, cell, or organism).
- Molecular Cloning: Isolates the DNA fragment containing the genes of interest, binds it to a DNA fragment in
Cell Cycle: Phases, Significance, and Genetic Control
Cell Cycle: Interphase and Mitosis
The cell cycle is the ordered set of events from one cell division to another, comprising interphase and mitosis.
Interphase
The cell does not divide, but genetic material duplicates, and cell growth occurs. It’s divided into:
- G1 Phase: Cell growth, doubling of organelles, and cytoplasmic structures. Some cells enter a resting phase.
- S Phase: DNA replication and centriole duplication. Errors can lead to mutations.
- G2 Phase: Preparation for mitosis, cell size increases,
Chromosomal and Sex-Linked Genetic Disorders
Altered Heterochromosome Numbers
Several changes can occur in the number of heterochromosomes, ranging from the duplication of X and Y chromosomes to the presence of four X chromosomes in both women and men. The main heterochromosomal aberrations are:
Turner Syndrome
Only occurs in women. It results from changes in the number of X heterochromosomes, originating from the union of a gamete carrying an X chromosome with a gamete lacking it. This monosomy causes: cardiovascular disease, moderate mental
Read MoreAnimalia: Characteristics, Functions, and Classification
In the scientific classification of living beings, the kingdom Animalia (animals) or Metazoa (metazoans) is a broad group of eukaryotic, heterotrophic, multicellular, and tissue-based organisms. They are characterized by their capacity for locomotion, the absence of chlorophyll and cell walls, and their embryonic development, passing through a blastula stage and determining a fixed body plan (although many species can subsequently undergo metamorphosis). Animals are a natural group closely related
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