Spanish Colonization of the Americas: 15th-17th Centuries
**The Discovery of America: Late 15th Century**
The discovery of America cannot be studied without being framed in the cultural atmosphere and European economic framework of the 15th century. There are a number of factors that promoted the Atlantic momentum, including:
- The need for new trade routes with India to break the traditional land routes and the Muslim geopolitical situation. This meant circumnavigating Africa to reach Asia or following the path of the sun.
- A new scientific spirit that moved away from scholastic positions and based the development of physical science. It applied to the sphericity of the Earth and developed important cartographic schools.
- Development of naval techniques, both in ships and navigational instruments.
- A demographic and psychological momentum for Atlantic expansion in a Spain that had finished its conquest and wanted further progress, having a surplus population.
In this context, Portugal and Castile led diverse and complementary Atlantic projects. In the Capitulations of Santa Fe, the Catholic Monarchs granted Columbus traditional conditions at the time of traders (10% stayed in the territories and the viceroy). The discoveries of Columbus led to tensions with Portugal over control of the new lands, which were resolved with the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). This treaty drew a line between the zones of influence of each kingdom.
**Conquest and Colonization of the Americas**
Once the sovereignty of the new land was secured, the conquest began. The first conquest, from 1492-1519, was that of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico). However, the great achievements were made between 1519-1550.
- The first phase was carried out by Hernán Cortés in the conquest of Mexico and the destruction of the Aztec Empire, thanks to the superiority of European weapons and the use of horses.
- The second phase was conducted by conquerors Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro with the conquest of the Inca Empire.
- The third phase focused on the northern part of present-day Argentina and Uruguay.
In the first half of the 16th century, the Spanish crown had explored and conquered the richest parts of Central and South America. In the second half, they explored the interior of Argentina, the Orinoco River basin, and the American Southwest. An expedition reached the Philippines, which was incorporated into the crown by López de Legazpi (1571). The Spanish Empire reached its peak at the end of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century.
**Government and Administration of the Spanish Empire**
The Spanish Empire was organized through political and administrative structures that remained in force until the 19th century. The new territories were incorporated into Castile, which established political and economic control of the discovered territories. This created the Council of the Indies (1503), a political-consultative body that managed affairs related to the territory. The House of Trade (1503), located in Seville, depended on it. Its function was to regulate the trade monopoly with America.
The political administration of the American territories was a copy of that in Castile. At the municipal level, councils were established, consisting only of Spaniards, with the same functions as the municipalities. Administration was complemented with Viceroyalties, founded in principle as two: Mexico and Peru, later adding Rio de la Plata and New Granada. Viceroys, representatives of the king, directed the administration, military, and justice. The viceroyalties were subdivided into smaller territorial units called governorates, led by governors, usually military.
The judicial functions were in charge of the Audiencias. There were two other institutions that were responsible for the control of royal officials: Trials of Residence and Visits.
**Impact of America on Spain**
The arrival of Columbus in America and the conquest and colonization of territories changed the lives of its inhabitants. The impact on Castile, the Hispanic Empire, and Europe was significant. The Indies were a great source of income for Castile and the Crown. In the first stage, the conquerors were interested in obtaining silver and gold. What was obtained was distributed as follows: one-fifth for the king, one-seventh for the master, and the rest for the men of the expedition.
Once Spanish rule was entrenched, the colonists sought new sources of income on farms, land, and mines. From 1540, large amounts of silver began to be removed from the mines of Mexico and Bolivia (in the first 150 years of conquest, 17,000 tons of silver and 200 tons of gold were extracted). Gold came from Colombia and Peru. Other precious metals and many pearls also came from Venezuela. With all this, large companies were supported, the monarchy was strengthened, and houses and palaces were built (El Escorial).
Farming and ranching made possible the arrival in America of many new plants and animals (horses, sheep, wheat, sugarcane) and unknown plants and animals in Europe that led to the global spread of new foods developed by American cultures (potato, corn, chocolate). America became a vast market that led to a great expansion of shipping and trade.