Spain’s Political Turmoil: 1868 Revolution to Bourbon Restoration
The Glorious Revolution (1868)
Introduction: In September 1868, a new pronouncement led by the army marked a turning point in Spanish history. Generals Serrano and Prim, along with Admiral Topete, initiated a revolt in Cadiz that rapidly spread throughout the country. Queen Isabella II was exiled to France following the Battle of Alcolea. This revolution, known as The Glorious, represented a new attempt by the bourgeoisie and a significant portion of the population to establish a democratic system.
Causes of the Revolution
- Social crisis in Andalusia, characterized by a series of peasant revolts led by landless farmers.
- Political crisis, with a succession of moderate and unionist governments. The deaths of O’Donnell and Narvaez further exposed the depletion of the moderate political model.
- In 1866, the Pact of Ostend was signed between progressives and democrats.
- Economic and financial crisis, along with a subsistence crisis that began in 1866, created a climate that ultimately led to the end of Isabella II’s monarchy.
The Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)
The question of who would occupy the throne of Spain became an international issue, further prolonging the period of provisional government and allowing the opposition, comprised of Republicans and Carlists, to gain strength. Amadeo of Savoy was considered the ideal candidate. He belonged to a royal house with a liberal tradition, was Catholic, and his election did not concern France or Prussia, the two major continental European powers at war. The courts appointed him king in November 1870. However, Prim, the new king’s main supporter, was assassinated under unclear circumstances three days before Amadeo I’s arrival.
The king swore to uphold the Constitution and, from the outset, demonstrated his commitment to fulfilling his role as a constitutional monarch. However, the division among political forces made it impossible to maintain stability. The government saw a succession of progressives led by Sagasta, radicals, and old unionists led by Francisco Serrano, all parties with limited real support among the constituencies. Elections remained fraudulent and manipulated.
In this context, Republicans, Carlists, and supporters of a Bourbon restoration under Prince Alfonso, son of Isabella II, gained adherents. In April 1872, the Carlist pretender, Carlos VII, entered Spain, leading to a new uprising in the Basque provinces and Navarre (the Third Carlist War, 1872-1876). In February 1873, a disillusioned Amadeo I abdicated. That same day, the Cortes overwhelmingly proclaimed the Republic.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
Over eleven months, the First Republic attempted to consolidate the democratic system initiated in 1868. However, the new regime faced serious problems from the start, leading to its instability and eventual failure. These problems included internal divisions among Republicans (unitarians and federalists), the Third Carlist War, the Cantonal Revolution, and the war in Cuba.
The main problem was the lack of genuine Republican sentiment among the political class and limited popular support. The Republic’s proclamation was a desperate attempt to find a solution rather than a reflection of widespread Republicanism.
The internal division among Republicans was another significant source of problems. Moderate federalists favored a gradual implementation of the Republican program, while the more radical faction demanded immediate action, even through subsidies if necessary.
In February, Estanislao Figueras, a non-unitary Republican, was elected president. In the May elections, the federalists, led by Francisco Pi y Margall, won a large majority, and he was appointed president. The Cortes quickly drafted a new Constitution establishing a federal structure for the state. It organized Spain into 17 federal states, including Cuba, but this constitution was never implemented.
The attempt to impose the new federal structure from above failed, and cantonalism rapidly spread across the country. According to the more radical federalists, these cantons were to be smaller political units that would form the Spanish federation. Alcoy and Cartagena were the first cities to proclaim themselves cantons. The slow response of the army, which was occupied fighting the Carlists, allowed many other cantons to be proclaimed in Andalusia and the Levante area, where the army eventually had to intervene. In many cases, it became evident that the lower classes intended to use radical federalism to achieve social demands.
These uprisings led to the resignation of Pi y Margall, who was replaced by Nicolás Salmerón. Salmerón, a moderate federalist, had the support of the most prestigious generals to end the Cantonalist movement. Salmerón, who refused to reinstate the death penalty, resigned and was replaced in early September by Emilio Castelar, a unitary Republican. Castelar declared federalism illegal, suspended the Cortes for three months, and strengthened military power to combat the canton of Cartagena and the Carlists.
When the Cortes reopened in early 1874, Castelar’s government was defeated, and it appeared that the government would return to the hands of the federalists. However, neither the army nor the most conservative classes were willing to accept another change in government, and General Pavía staged a coup d’état. This marked the end of the Republican regime, although Spain officially remained a republic until the end of the year.
General Serrano presided over a new provisional government whose immediate objectives were to restore public order, control the Carlists, and continue the war in Cuba. However, General Arsenio Martínez Campos revolted, and Alfonso XII was proclaimed king. General Serrano was exiled, and Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, who had long been preparing for the return of the monarchy, was named president of the Council of Ministers while the new king arrived in Spain.