Roman and Byzantine Empires: A Historical Timeline
The Roman Empire and Its Legacy
The Roman Empire stretched across the Mediterranean, reaching its borders in Europe to the British Isles and the rivers Rhine and Danube, the river Tigris to Asia, and Africa to the Sahara desert. This rule was broken in 395 due to invasions of the Germanic peoples that forced Emperor Theodosius I to divide the empire to defend it better. The Western Roman Empire (Rome) and Eastern Roman Empire (Constantinople) evolved differently.
The Western Roman Empire (395-476)
The Western Roman Empire disappeared in 476 when the head of one of the Germanic peoples deposed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus. This fact marks the end of the ancient era and the beginning of the Middle Ages. This territory was divided into several Germanic kingdoms, highlighted in Gaul, ruled by Charlemagne, who attempted to restore the rule.
The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) (395-1453)
The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, survived the Germanic invasions and continued until 1453. Historical trends in the early 6th century show that the empire was composed of the Balkans, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, with fertile agricultural land and shopping centers. During the reign of Justinian I (527-565), the empire reached its zenith. Justinian attempted to restore the borders of the ancient Roman Empire, conquering North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and southeastern Spain. After his death, the empire was in crisis, and everything was lost.
The Muslims conquered the Byzantine Empire’s richest provinces in the 7th century and faced numerous attacks by Muslims and Bulgarians. In the mid-11th century, Byzantium entered a deep crisis. In the West, the Normans were expelled from Italy. In the East, they had to face the Christian crusaders and the threat of the Turks, who conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.
Organization and Administrative Policy
- Emperor: Took the title from the Greek basileus in the 7th century and concentrated all power, ruled, and directed the administration and the army. If he was consecrated and crowned by the patriarch of Constantinople, he could intervene in church affairs.
- Central Administration: Had a well-organized bureaucracy, made up of many officials, and whose law was based on Roman law.
- Territorial Administration: Was organized in provinces called themes, led by strategos or political and military leaders.
- The Army: Had numerous cavalry and was of great importance for the survival of the empire.
The Byzantine Economy
- Agriculture: It was the main economic activity. It was organized in large estates or properties belonging to the nobility or the monasteries and worked by serfs.
- Craft: Was based on the manufacture of luxury goods. There were numerous workshops, which employed many state workers.
- Trade: Was favored by the strategic geographical situation of the empire and its capital, which controlled the passage between Europe and Asia and trade with the Mediterranean and Black Sea.
Byzantine Society
- Highest Level: The aristocracy and the church officials.
- Average Level: The secular clergy, monks, government officials, rich merchants, and freeholders.
- Lowest Level: Serfs, slaves, and beggars.
The Byzantine Church
The Byzantine Church had great political, social, and economic influence. It crowned the emperor, possessed large estates, and spiritually controlled society. However, it had problems because the emperor interfered in the affairs of the church (Caesaropapism). During the 8th and 9th centuries, it faced iconoclastic emperors and monks, with most of Byzantine society wanting to ban sacred images but failing. The rivalry between the patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome for his supremacy over Christianity ended in 1054 with the separation of the Eastern and Western Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church was renamed, keeping the primitive customs of Christianity.
Byzantine Culture
Until the 7th century, the tradition and heritage of the Roman world continued. After that, Greek became the official language, and culture was Hellenized.
Byzantine Art
Byzantine art was very rich and sumptuous, expressing the power of the emperors and the great influence of the church in society. It was influenced by Greek and Roman styles and used cheap materials. Its main elements were columns, arches, and vaults, especially semicircular domes on scallops. The main building was the church, which used different types of plants. Religious buildings include the Basilica of St. Sophia in Constantinople and the Church of San Vitale.
Germanic Kingdoms
After the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustus, the Old West formed several kingdoms of different personalities but with common features:
- Form of Government: Monarchy, helped by officials.
- Economy: Based on agriculture. Economic activities, crafts, and trade declined.
- Society: Run by secular and ecclesiastical aristocracy.
- Culture and Art: Declined.
The Carolingian Empire
In the territory of the ancient Roman Empire, the Franks stressed their most resplendent period between the 8th and 9th centuries under the government of the Carolingian dynasty. Its main king was Charlemagne, who would restore the unity of the former Western Roman Empire. He conquered several territories and was proclaimed emperor by Pope Leo III in 800. However, the duration of the empire was cut short as his son, Louis the Pious, divided the kingdom between his sons in 840.
Carolingian Economy
Economic activities were predominant and practiced on large estates divided into a reservoir and small parcels. Urban activities declined.
Carolingian Society
The large landowners (laity and clergy) were at the head of the company. All other free persons were mostly farmers and, to a lesser extent, artisans and merchants. The servants occupied the lowest social position.
Carolingian Culture
Carolingian culture reached its highest splendor in the reign of Charlemagne. The Latin language was imposed as an administrative and teaching program, restoring classical antiquity.
Carolingian Art
In Carolingian art, architecture was highlighted by some notable buildings but especially for jewelry and miniatures. The mosaic was used to decorate the walls and domes inside the church and was made with tiles. The icons were images of religious subjects.