The Restoration Era and the Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848
The Restoration Era (Post-Napoleonic Europe)
Reaction and the Return of Absolutism
Following Napoleon’s defeat, a period of reaction known as the Restoration began. Illiberal powers attempted to reinstate a system that would prevent further revolutions in Europe. Monarchs returned to power, often acting as if the French Revolution had never occurred. In some cases, kings granted charters recognizing some rights to the population, such as King Louis XVIII of France.
The Congress of Vienna and the
Read MoreFrench Revolution & Napoleonic Era: Rise and Fall
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Era
The Radicalized Revolution and the Fall of the Monarchy
Radicalized by external threats, the revolution transformed into a genuine fight against the dictatorship. A new bourgeois regime eventually emerged, surrendering power to Napoleon Bonaparte, thus ending the revolution.
The Girondin Convention (1792-1793)
The beginning of the republic marked a radical and popular phase in the revolution. During the organization of the new political system, the September
Read MoreDynastic Union of Castile and Aragon: A Historical Overview
Dynastic Union
Catalonia and Aragon
In the Principality of Catalonia, several conflicts took on the character of social struggles. In Barcelona, traditional labor groups clashed with traders and master craftsmen. This conflict had its precedent in the war of the remensa peasants, where peasant groups sought to break the oppression of the landed gentry. This social unrest was exacerbated by a civil war that affected all realms of the Crown of Aragon. The war between the two sides extended throughout
Read MoreHumanism and the Renaissance: A New Era in Europe
Humanism and the Renaissance
A new mentality emerged in 14th-century Italy, placing man at the center of the world. This humanism spread throughout Europe during the 15th century, culminating in the 16th-century Renaissance.
Characteristics of Humanism
- Exalted reason and freedom
- Inspired by Greco-Roman culture
- Interest in science and technical progress, fostering a new scientific spirit
- Use of vernacular languages (French, Spanish, Italian, etc.)
Erasmus of Rotterdam was the most prominent humanist. The
Read MoreAnalysis of Polykleitos’ Diadumen and Myron’s Discobolus
Polykleitos’ Diadumen
Listing
- Title: Diadumen
- Artist: Polykleitos (480-420 BC)
- Date: 430 BC (original bronze), 5th Century BC (marble copies)
- Commissioner: Unknown (possibly individual or public authority)
- Recipient: Unknown (possibly individual or polis)
External Data
- Technique: Lost-wax casting (original), carving (copies)
- Material: Bronze (original), marble (copies)
- Tools: Clay, wax, bronze, hammer, chisel, marble
- Form: Freestanding sculpture
- Typology: Standing figure
- Color: Monochrome
- Location: National Archaeological
The Parthenon and Pergamon Altar: Ancient Greek Masterpieces
A) General Documentation: The Parthenon
1. Name:
Parthenon (Abode of the Virgin)
2. Architect:
Iktinos, with Callicrates as an assistant. Phidias oversaw the work and sculpted the reliefs.
3. Commissioner:
Pericles
4. Location:
Acropolis, Athens
5. Chronology:
447-438 BC
6. Dimensions:
31m x 69.5m x 13.72m (floor); Columns: 10.5m high, 1.8m diameter
7. Materials:
Pentelic marble
8. Wall Treatment:
Isodomic masonry
9. Construction System:
Post and lintel (arquitraved)
10. Beneficiary:
The city of Athens
B)
Read More18th Century Society & Politics: From Feudalism to Enlightenment
Demographic System
Rural agrarian societies of the old regime were closely tied to the economy. Common features included high birth rates, high mortality rates, and minimal natural growth (just over 2/1000 annually). These populations were vulnerable to plagues, wars, and endemic diseases, which significantly impacted the younger generation. Subsistence crises often resulted from poor harvests.
Traditional Agriculture
Agriculture and livestock farming were the primary economic activities. Traditional
Read MoreThe Restoration in Spain: A Political History (1874-1898)
A New Political System
Spanish Conservatives were satisfied with the Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty because they expected the new monarchy to restore political stability and end any attempt at democratic and social revolution. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo was not seeking a return to the era of Isabel II, but a new political model that would overcome some of the endemic problems of liberalism: the partisan character and exclusion of moderates during the Elizabethan reign, military intervention
Read MoreEsplanade, Sub-base, and Pavement Construction Guidelines
Esplanade Construction
Definition
The esplanade is the finished surface of an embankment or excavation. It supports the sub-base, base, and pavement layers.
Geotechnical Characteristics (50cm Depth)
- Particle size analysis
- Atterberg limits
- CBR
- Water table status
Level Terraces
Packed in 20-25cm layers:
- 90% AM (coherent soil)
- 95% PM (non-coherent soil)
In the last 50cm of the bank:
- 95% AM
- 100% PM humidity
Moisture Content for PM Esplanade
Start work when soil humidity (h) in the top 50cm is:
h < H + 2
Where H =
Read MoreGolden Age of Spanish Literature: Quevedo, Lope, Calderón, and Lazarillo
Francisco de Quevedo (1580-1645)
Life and Works
Born in Madrid in 1580, Francisco de Quevedo was involved in political intrigues, leading to imprisonment on two occasions. He died in Villanueva de los Infantes in 1645. Quevedo’s literary contributions are significant, encompassing both poetry and prose. His work is characterized by its linguistic mastery.
Poetic Works
- Metaphysical Poems: These compositions explore human existence, the brevity of life, the passage of time, and the acceptance of death.