The Restoration Era and the Revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848
The Restoration Era (Post-Napoleonic Europe)
Reaction and the Return of Absolutism
Following Napoleon’s defeat, a period of reaction known as the Restoration began. Illiberal powers attempted to reinstate a system that would prevent further revolutions in Europe. Monarchs returned to power, often acting as if the French Revolution had never occurred. In some cases, kings granted charters recognizing some rights to the population, such as King Louis XVIII of France.
The Congress of Vienna and the Reshaping of Europe
The Congress of Vienna (1815) aimed to establish a new territorial distribution in Europe to ensure lasting peace and prevent future revolutions. Key players included Austrian minister Metternich, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and French Foreign Minister Talleyrand. The Congress aimed to reduce the number of states and contain French expansionism. Key changes included restoring France’s pre-revolution borders, strengthening neighboring countries to prevent French expansion, and distributing territories among Austria, Prussia, and Russia to maintain a balance of power.
However, the Congress of Vienna created new problems, such as the forced union of Belgium and the Netherlands, and Sweden and Norway. It also failed to address rising nationalism in Poland, Italy, and Germany, which would become major issues in the 19th century.
International Alliances Against Revolution
European powers sought to solidify the Restoration through alliances. The Holy Alliance, comprised of Prussia, Russia, Austria, and later France, was anti-liberal and aimed to defend absolutism and the divine right of kings. The Quadruple Alliance, consisting of the UK, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, aimed to uphold the order established by the Congress of Vienna.
A New Wave of Revolutions (1820-1848)
Liberalism and Nationalism
The Restoration order proved fragile. Liberalism became the ideology of the rising bourgeoisie, who inevitably sought political power to match their economic influence. This led to the revolutions of 1820, 1830, and 1848. These revolutions were primarily driven by liberalism and nationalism. Liberalism rejected absolutism and sought to restore the rights and freedoms of the French Revolution. Napoleon’s expansion had exacerbated national identities, but the Congress of Vienna disregarded the cultural and historical realities of various peoples, such as the Poles, Belgians, Norwegians, Italians, and Germans. Furthermore, empires like the Ottoman, Russian, and Austrian, comprised of diverse populations, faced growing demands for independence.
The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
The first revolutionary wave of 1820 began in Spain, where an uprising against Ferdinand VII led to the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823). Liberals reinstated the Constitution of 1812, but the Holy Alliance intervened, restoring absolutism. In 1821, Greece revolted against Ottoman rule, ultimately achieving independence in 1829. The second wave in 1830 centered on France. King Charles X’s attempt to dismantle the charter granted by Louis XVIII resulted in a revolution that installed Louis Philippe, a leader of the affluent bourgeoisie. An uprising in Brussels against the King of Holland led to Belgian independence. However, similar movements in Italy, Germany, and Poland failed.
The Revolutions of 1848
The revolutions of 1848 were widespread and incorporated social and worker elements alongside liberalism and nationalism. It began in France, where a revolution against the increasingly corrupt regime of Louis Philippe led to the Second Republic. The new regime failed to meet worker demands, leading to further uprisings in June, which were ultimately suppressed. The bourgeoisie triumphed, drafting a moderate constitution and electing Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who later established the Second Empire in 1852. Revolutions occurred elsewhere but were unsuccessful. Despite their failures, the 1848 revolutions marked a new political era by initiating the unification of Italy and Germany, and advancing democracy through the expansion of voting rights in some countries.