History of the Iberian Peninsula: From Hominids to the Enlightenment
1. The Iberian Peninsula: From Prehistory to the Roman Empire
1.1 The Process of Hominization in the Iberian Peninsula: New Findings
The hominization process began in Africa. From there, 1.5 million years ago, Homo ergaster (“working man”) spread through East Africa, Asia, and Europe. In Gran Dolina in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos), the oldest fossils in Europe (800,000 years ago) were found in 1994. These included skulls and jawbones of six individuals—two adults and four children—representing
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: From Reform to Rupture (1931-1936)
The Fall of the Monarchy and the Birth of the Second Republic
Primo de Rivera’s Downfall
Primo de Rivera’s hostility towards Catalan autonomy and his favoritism towards the Church in university education sparked widespread social unrest. Lacking clear support, the dictator resigned on January 28, 1930, and went into exile, dying in Paris two months later. King Alfonso XIII then tasked General Dámaso Berenguer with forming a new government.
The Pact of San Sebastián and the Rise of Republicanism
In
Read MoreThe Spanish Crisis of 1917: A Turning Point
The Spanish Crisis of 1917
Overview
The crisis of 1917 unfolded in three major movements that converged with the goal of overthrowing the government. The protagonists were:
- Military members
- Workers
The Military Movement
A vindictive military movement arose, unhappy with the privileges of officers serving in Morocco (promotions, salary). Juntas emerged demanding improvements, causing the fall of the Liberal government of Garcia Prieto and the rise of the conservative Eduardo Dato. The government eventually
Read MoreAnalysis of Article 6 of the Organic Law of the State (1967)
Article 6 of the Organic Law of the State (1967)
Introduction
This fragment analyzes Article 6 of the Organic Law of the State, a historical text-policy legislation presented by Franco to Parliament on November 22, 1966. It was approved unanimously and enthusiastically by Franco’s supporters. This Law was submitted to a national referendum on December 14th, after a campaign in its favor orchestrated by the Franco regime. The referendum vote was influenced by economic sanctions against abstentionists.
Read MoreThe Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Muslim Conquest to Taifa Kingdoms
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Muslim Conquest and Invaders
In 711, Islamized Arab and Berber groups entered the Iberian Peninsula. They eliminated the Visigoth kingdom, laid the foundations for new economic and social structures, and named the territory Al-Andalus.
In April 711, a Berber army under the command of Tarik, a lieutenant of the Arab governor Musa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. Two months later, at the Battle of Guadalete, they defeated Don Rodrigo (Visigoth king). Three
Read MorePrimo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain (1923-1930)
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
4.1. The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
Primo de Rivera’s coup of September 13, 1923, had the connivance of the King and the enthusiastic support of employers’ organizations and the extreme right.
A Fascist Regime: The Military Directory (1923-1925)
The Military Directory was proposed as a temporary solution that declared war on the state of the country. The new regime suspended the constitution and prohibited political parties and unions, and dismissed
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic: A Tumultuous Era
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939)
1934: Political Upheaval
In 1934, the dismissal of three CEDA ministers triggered a revolutionary movement supported by the Generalitat, the PCE, and the CNT. A political general strike erupted in major cities, and Lluís Companys declared “the Catalan State within the Spanish Federal Republic.” As a consequence, Companys was imprisoned, and Catalonia’s autonomy was suspended. A significant revolt also took place in Asturias.
Consequences of the Revolution:
- The
The Christian Kingdoms in Medieval Spain: From Stagnation to Expansion
ITEM 3: The Christian Kingdoms (1): From Stagnation to Expansion (8th to 13th Centuries)
1. Introduction
This period, spanning from the 8th to the 13th century, examines the transformation of medieval peninsular society into a medieval Christian society. Several factors contributed to this shift:
- The decline of Al-Andalus
- The territorial expansion of the Christian kingdoms
- The emergence of distinctive features in the Peninsula due to the Muslim presence
- The introduction of European Christian characteristics
The Spanish Second Republic (1931-1939)
1. Proclamation of the Republic
The 1931 municipal elections saw a significant victory for Spanish Republican candidates in major cities, demonstrating a clear rejection of the monarchy and a desire to establish a Republic. Following these elections, the Republic was proclaimed in Eibar and many other cities, accompanied by peaceful demonstrations of citizen support. King Alfonso XIII relinquished royal power and went into exile on the same day, April 14th.
The Interim Government
Representatives of
Read MoreCopper Mining: From Exploration to Production
Exploration Stages
Basic Navigation
In this first stage, a general reconnaissance of a large area (tens to hundreds of kilometers) is conducted to identify favorable characteristics that may indicate the presence of a copper field.
Intermediate Exploration
The objective of this stage is to confirm the existence of copper mineralization at depth, based on the information collected in the previous stage.
Advanced Exploration
This stage determines more precisely the shape and extent of the deposit and the
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