Ethics and Utilitarianism in 18th and 19th Century Philosophy
Ethics (Hume 1711-1776)
For Hume, morality is based on feelings, making his ethics emotivist. Feelings determine morality, which is formed by a universal sentiment shared by everyone. This feeling of sympathy (the ability to be impressed by what happens to another) is common to all human beings. We can understand each other’s ideas because of the sympathy that makes us sensitive to the problems of others. This can also generate envy. The pleasant or unpleasant feelings produced by sympathy are the
Read More20th Century Spanish Theater: From Modernism to Post-Franco Era
Theater in the First Half of the 20th Century
Modernist Theater and the Generation of ’98
At the beginning of the century, inherited theatrical forms from the previous century continued to be represented. Until 1920, there was no noticeable attempt to renovate the theater. Authors of the Generation of ’98 and ’27 laid the groundwork for innovative theatrical creations that transcended Spain’s borders.
A ‘commercial’ theater triumphed in these early decades. Enduring works by Carlos Arniches and the
Read MoreSpanish Transition to Democracy: Reform or Rupture?
1. Political Change and the Organization of Forces
The Debate: Reform or Rupture?
Following Franco’s death, the vast majority of Spanish society desired significant change. A fierce debate arose concerning the path to achieve this transformation. Some advocated for reforming Franco’s existing institutions and laws, while others believed a revolutionary break was the only way to achieve true democracy.
The Reformists
The reformists, often referred to as the aperturistas, were primarily young politicians
Read MoreThe Peaceful Shift and the Disaster of 1898 in Spain
The Peaceful Shift: Cánovas and Sagasta
Cánovas del Castillo, influenced by the British parliamentary system, established political stability with two major royalist parties alternating in power. With Sagasta’s support, these formations consolidated into two main parties:
- Conservative Party: Led by Cánovas, it included former moderate liberals and the Unionists.
- Liberal Party: Headed by Sagasta, it united the old progressives and democratic republicans.
These parties were known as:
- Dynastic Parties:
The Decline of the Spanish Empire in the 17th Century
The Spanish Empire in the 17th Century
Austria, Government, and Internal Conflicts
During the 17th century, Habsburg policy was often left in the hands of trusted individuals known as validos.
Felipe III (1598-1621) oversaw the beginning of Spain’s decline. The most influential figure of his reign was the Duke of Lerma, who was eventually dismissed due to mismanagement and the intrigues of his son, the Duke of Uceda. Both men primarily sought personal enrichment and prevented the monarch from actively
Read More19th Century Spain: From War to Revolution
War of Independence (1808-1814)
Following the French invasion of Spain and the abdication of King Carlos IV in favor of his son, Prince Fernando (later Fernando VII), the Spanish people rose up in resistance. The Defense Council, headed by the Supreme Board representing the King and the Spanish institutions, led the fight against the French occupation. After the fall of Seville, Cádiz became a crucial stronghold due to its strategic location as a peninsula with a wide bay and access to the Spanish
Read MoreKey Figures & Groups of the Spanish Civil War
Military Units and Organizations
The International Brigades
Military units composed of foreign volunteers who fought for the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The first groups were formed by July 1936 with participants from the Barcelona Olympiad, including the Thaelmann Battalion (German), the Gastone Sozzi Giustizia e Libertà (Italian), the Commune of Paris (Franco-Belgian), and the Thomas Mann Battalion (British). The Comintern organized these volunteers of various anti-fascist
Read MoreThe Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Fall of the Spanish Monarchy (1923-1930)
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the Collapse of the Monarchy (1923-1930)
International Context
The international context of this period was marked by the crisis of liberal democracies following World War I. These democracies were blamed for the war and faced challenges from both liberal socialism and fascism. Liberal socialism advocated for a strong state governed by a proletarian dictatorship, while fascism promoted an authoritarian state. Although fascism only triumphed in Italy and Germany,
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War: A Divided Nation
1. Introduction: A Society on the Brink
A Divided Society: Three Policy Options
The period of 1936-1939 was marked by a severe economic crisis, particularly in Europe. While the United States saw some recovery under President Roosevelt’s New Deal policy, Europe faced a deeper crisis that threatened liberal democracies. The rise of fascist powers, first in Italy with Mussolini (1922) and then in Germany with Hitler (1933), created a tense international context.
In Spain, three main policy options emerged:
Read MoreSpanish History: Exploration, Enlightenment, and Crisis
The Discovery of America
The discovery of America was not an unforeseen event, but the result of a series of maritime explorations in search of a new route to India. The causes that prompted the Europeans to search for that continent were:
- Economic (gold and spices)
- Political (prestige for the monarchy)
The Treaty of Alcaçovas divided the Atlantic expansion between Castile and Portugal, reserving the south for the Portuguese. This prevented Castile from following the usual route to reach the East Indies.
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