Introduction to Scientific Research and Communication
1. What is Science?
Science is the systematic collection of knowledge constituting a branch of human knowledge (e.g., philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, history).
2. What is Technology?
Technology is the application of scientific methods to satisfy human needs by transforming the environment.
3. What is Research?
Research is a systematic, organized, and objective process that aims to answer a question or hypothesis, increasing knowledge and information about an unknown subject.
4. What is Scientific
Read MoreChilean Constitution of 1823: A Moral Foundation
Third Period
Background
At the time of O’Higgins’ abdication, the provinces of Concepción and Coquimbo took up arms. On March 30, 1823, three representatives of the Provincial Assembly signed the Act of Union of the Provinces to address this situation. This provisional constitution elected Ramon Freire as Acting Supreme Director and declared the 1818 Constitution in force (except where contrary to the Act of Union). It also organized a Constituent General Congress to develop a new Constitutional
Read MoreThe Industrial Revolution: A Socioeconomic Transformation
The Industrial Revolution
1. Introduction
The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant economic and technological change that began in Britain in the 18th century. It transformed society and the economy in unprecedented ways.
1.1. Population Revolution
Europe experienced a period of population growth (demographic revolution) from 140 million to 266 million. This was due to increased food production and advancements in hygiene and medicine. Life expectancy increased from 38 to 50 years.
1.2.
Read MoreSpain in the Early 20th Century: From Crisis to Dictatorship
1.5. The Impact of the Great War and the Crisis of 1917
In the first decades of the twentieth century, international developments had important consequences in Spain. World War I had significant economic consequences. The neutrality in the war allowed Spain to provide agricultural and industrial products to countries in conflict. This had two major effects: on the one hand, a great enrichment of the bourgeoisie, and on the other, the worsening of the living conditions of the working class due to
Read MoreThe Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God
The Epistemological Question of Knowing God
Can We Know God?
St. Thomas Aquinas addresses the question of whether it is possible to know God. He argues that the existence of contingent things in nature, things that may or may not be, points to a necessary being. Since something cannot come from nothing, these contingent things must originate from a pre-existing necessary being, which is what we call God. Aquinas views this as evidence for God’s existence. He defines contingent as that which exists
Read MoreThe Evolution of the Employer: From Capitalist to Technocrat
The Evolution of the Employer
18th Century: The Capitalist
Adam Smith (1723-1790) described the employer as a capitalist owning the means of production during the Industrial Revolution.
19th Century: The Businessman
Richard Cantillon (1680-1734) viewed the entrepreneur as a businessman who buys means of production and resells at uncertain prices, assuming business risks. Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) believed production value should cover all production costs and ensure profit.
Late 19th Century: The
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Civil War
The Military Uprising, Development, and Political Developments
The Military Uprising
The military uprising began in Melilla on July 17, 1936, and quickly spread throughout the Moroccan protectorate. On July 18 and 19, it extended to the peninsula and archipelago, while the Casares Quiroga government reacted slowly.
The coup succeeded in Galicia, Castilla-Leon, Navarre (with General Mola in Pamplona), Western Andalusia (with Queipo de Llano in Seville), the Balearic Islands (except Menorca,
Read MoreOckham’s Philosophy: Essence, Existence, and Knowledge
The Notion of Essence in Platonic and Aristotelian Philosophy
Plato and Aristotle’s View
Both Plato and Aristotle considered the notion of essence as fundamental for understanding reality. They believed that things in the world derive their identity from a single essence.
They attributed universality and necessity to essence. Universality implies that for every group of particular things sharing the same identity, there is one essence. Necessity means that the essence cannot fail to exist; it must
Read MorePrimo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
On September 13, 1923, General Primo de Rivera led a coup and seized power backed by the army, the bourgeoisie and the consent of Alfonso XIII. In fact, the system of the Restoration, under the Constitution of 1876, had come from the year 1917 in a crisis would not recover:
• In 1917 there was a crisis that coincided three movements: the military with the creation of a joint defense (partnerships that the Government refused to recognize), the politician with the convening of a parliamentary assembly
Read MoreUnderstanding Spanish Labor Laws and Payroll
1. Difference Between Wages and Non-Wage Perceptions
Wages are payments subject to social security contributions. Non-wage perceptions, such as certain reimbursements or benefits, are not considered wages and are excluded from these contributions. Some non-wage perceptions are only reported when they exceed established limits.
2. Overtime Categories for Social Security Contributions
Overtime hours generate additional social security contributions beyond the standard Professional Contingency Base Contribution
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