Criminal Law: Error, Unlawfulness, and Defenses
Criminal Law: Error
From a criminal perspective, error is defined as “the ignorance or misrepresentation of any or all facts considered unlawful or their significance.” Plato distinguished between ignorance (a complete lack of knowledge) and error (false knowledge). There are two main types of error:
Types of Error
- Error of fact (error facti): A mistake concerning the elements of the offense.
- Error of law (error juris): A mistake concerning legal elements.
Further distinctions include:
- Error in the
Organizational Structures
Organizational Role: Identification and classification of activities; division of process work for better productive contribution; and design of structure (who does the work, who is responsible, and management—which is relationship coordination).
Principle Division and Specialization: The technical division organizes production, breaking down time and activities into tasks. This increases productivity and efficiency. Coordination of tasks is needed for effective contribution.
Organizational Principles:
Read MoreHuman Circulatory System: Blood, Heart, Vessels
The Circulatory System
The circulatory system has several functions:
- Brings food and oxygen to the cells.
- Collects metabolic wastes (removed by the kidneys as urine).
- Exchanges air (rich in carbon dioxide) in the lungs.
All this work is done by the blood, which constantly circulates. Additionally, the circulatory system:
- Is involved in the body’s defense system.
- Regulates body temperature.
- Transports hormones.
Blood
Blood is the fluid circulating throughout the body via the circulatory system. This system
Read MoreCatalan Autonomy: Historical Documents (1888-1932)
Catalan Autonomy: Key Historical Documents (1888-1932)
Statute of Autonomy of 1932
Primary Source: Contemporary political text.
Publicly available text of the Statute of Autonomy.
This text presents six articles of the 1932 Statute of Autonomy.
1932 | Catalonia
During the Second Spanish Republic’s reformist biennium under Aznar, power in Catalonia rested with the government of President Macià. The Statute of Autonomy was approved by the Madrid government.
Catalan Politics. Citizens of Catalonia.
Article
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century: Regionalism, Nationalism & Labor Movements
ITEM 3. REGIONALISM AND THE NATIONALIST LABOR MOVEMENT
The liberal political system was born during a time of national rupture (1833-1840 civil war over succession to the throne after Fernando VII’s death). Its weakness was manifested by its control by military and political elites representing the most conservative liberalism. They created a centralized state model with territorial divisions in provinces, imitating French models, which was assumed to guarantee national unity.
Nineteenth-century
Rise of Totalitarianism: Stalinism, Japanese Militarism, and Fascism
The Fight for Power in 1922
In 1922, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin engaged in a power struggle, representing different visions for the revolution and socialism.
- Trotsky believed socialism required international collaboration.
- Stalin advocated for “Socialism in One Country,” prioritizing strengthening the revolution within Russia.
Presenting himself as Lenin’s heir, Stalin allied with old Bolsheviks like Bukharin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev to secure his succession. After eliminating his rivals, Stalin consolidated
Read MoreEmployment Contracts, Salaries, and Employee Rights
Employment Contracts, Salaries, and Employee Rights
Salary and Payroll
Salary is the total economic benefit in money or in kind, including:
- The base salary rate, set by the working time.
- Salary supplements: Fixed according to the worker’s personal conditions, the work done, their status, and company results.
Payroll is the receipt of wages or salary, as per the official model or collective agreement/company covenant.
- Total compensation includes total earnings, including overtime.
- Proportion of extra payments:
Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset: A Comparison of Philosophies
Ortega y Gasset
Life
For Ortega y Gasset, life, guided by reason and based on freedom and continuous choices, is the only reality.
Ideas
Concepts built by the intellect, but always in the context of life, hence the term “occurrences”—what happens to a person.
Historical Sense
Human life isn’t fixed, but rather its history; what one does throughout life. Man is his actions, not a static being.
Occurrences
Ortega y Gasset defines these as the real ideas a person experiences.
Beliefs
Concepts or categories
Read MoreKant’s Philosophy: A Critical Analysis
Kant’s Social Contract
The social contract is an agreement uniting individuals to form a partnership leading to a civil constitution. This pact stems from the general will and is the only basis for community. It’s a rational idea obligating legislators to create laws benefiting the entire people.
Freedom and Civil Society
Freedom and civil society are intrinsically linked. Individuals surrender external freedom (via the social contract) to regain it as members of a state. This isn’t a sacrifice; it’
Read MoreMarxist Anthropology: Historical Materialism and Alienation
Marx: Historical Materialism
The Marxist Anthropology
A human being is essentially, for Marx, a producer, a worker. Man transforms nature to the pair that humanizes it. The human being is essentially a generic being, universal, which denies nature through work to assert himself. It is a producer and a consumer. Man has needs that are met in their natural environment. Human beings are social beings. For Marx, man is not only an individual, but also a social animal. That is also why Marx was opposed
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