Rise of Totalitarianism: Stalinism, Japanese Militarism, and Fascism
The Fight for Power in 1922
In 1922, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin engaged in a power struggle, representing different visions for the revolution and socialism.
- Trotsky believed socialism required international collaboration.
- Stalin advocated for “Socialism in One Country,” prioritizing strengthening the revolution within Russia.
Presenting himself as Lenin’s heir, Stalin allied with old Bolsheviks like Bukharin, Zinoviev, and Kamenev to secure his succession. After eliminating his rivals, Stalin consolidated his personal power, establishing the system known as Stalinism.
Stalinism
Stalin’s dictatorship deviated from the Bolshevik revolution’s initial principles. He seized control of the party and the state, utilizing the NKVD to eliminate old Bolsheviks. The 1936 Constitution formalized the Stalinist state, solidifying the socialization of production and mandating citizen service to the regime.
Stalinist Economy
Under Stalin, the economy was centrally planned through Five-Year Plans, focusing on:
- Rapid industrialization and modernization of infrastructure.
- Forced collectivization of agriculture through collective and state farms.
Stalinism guaranteed social services like food, housing, education, and healthcare.
The Purges
The darkest aspect of Stalinism was the purges, resulting in millions of deportations and deaths:
- Ethnic minorities were displaced to erase multinationalism.
- Peasants faced brutal repression, leading to deaths and displacement.
- Intellectuals were sent to gulags, a system of concentration camps.
Japanese Militarism
Following the Meiji Restoration, Japan became an economic power and the strongest state in Asia. By the early 20th century, Japan had developed a strong expansionist, militaristic foreign policy, which would later influence its alliances with European fascism in World War II.
The Internal Crisis
World War I initially boosted Japan’s economy due to reduced European trade competition. However, post-war European trade recovery challenged the Japanese economy, leading to social unrest. The 1921 assassination of Prime Minister Hara Takashi and the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake further exacerbated the crisis.
Political Radicalization
Emperor Hirohito’s ascension in 1926 initially brought political openness and social liberties. However, ties between political parties and zaibatsus (industrial conglomerates) hindered reform. Facing demands for change, conservatives defended the imperial monarchy and radicalized nationalist sentiment, transforming Japan into a totalitarian system, culminating in the 1940 ban on political parties.
Nippon Imperialism
The Japanese Army, holding significant social prestige, exerted pressure for imperialist expansion. This expansionism was fueled by the perceived limitations of the Japanese archipelago:
- Limited territory to support the economy.
- Overpopulation due to high growth rates.
The 1932 assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi marked the end of traditional politics. Japan occupied Korea in 1934, initiated war with China in 1937, and allied with Germany and Italy in 1939. By 1938, Japan declared a “New Order” in East Asia. The Imperial Army’s rearmament was facilitated by large industrial corporations.
What is Fascism?
Fascism, a political movement emerging between the wars, emphasized nation, militarism, anti-Marxism, anti-liberalism, rejection of parliamentary systems, and totalitarianism. While various fascist models existed, they shared common characteristics.
Ideological Underpinnings of Fascism
- Nationalism: An extreme, exclusionary form of nationalism.
- Irrationalism: Rejection of Enlightenment thought, influenced by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.
- Decadence: Critique of bourgeois liberal values.
- Social Darwinism: Application of Darwin’s theories to society.
- Corporatism: Organization of society based on corporations, denying class struggle.
- Futurism: Embrace of futurism’s dehumanizing aspects.
Characteristics of Fascist Regimes
Political:
- Rejection of liberalism and democracy.
- Anti-Marxism.
- State supremacy.
- Expansionist nationalism and militarism.
- Single-party rule.
- Charismatic leader (e.g., Führer, Duce).
Economic:
- Autarky (economic self-sufficiency).
- Imperialism.
- Public works programs.
- Corruption in arms production.
Social and Cultural:
- Control of society through party-affiliated associations.
- Elitism and social hierarchy.
- Scapegoating.
- Propaganda through mass media.
- Use of violence against opposition.
The Italian Fascist Party
Sociopolitical Crisis in Italy
- Discontent with post-World War I treaties.
- Crisis of the democratic system.
- Economic hardship.
- Fear of Bolshevik-style revolution.
- Labor unrest.
The Rise to Power
Benito Mussolini founded the Fascist movement in 1919. Despite initial electoral setbacks, growing discontent fueled support. In 1921, he formed the National Fascist Party, targeting leftist groups. By 1922, Mussolini’s “March on Rome” demonstrated his support, pressuring the King to appoint him Prime Minister.
The Fascist Regime
Mussolini dismantled democracy through:
- Political violence, including the 1924 assassination of a Socialist leader.
- Establishment of a dictatorship in 1925.
- One-party rule under the National Fascist Party.
- Agreement with the Pope, granting the Church control over education.
- Corporatist economic model, controlling social and economic life.
- Protectionist policies favoring industry and large landowners.
Origins of Nazism
Germany’s defeat in World War I and the Treaty of Versailles’s harsh terms fueled resentment and instability, paving the way for the Nazi Party’s rise.
Post-War Crisis
- Resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, including heavy reparations and territorial losses.
- Economic downturn following the 1929 crisis.
The Creation of Nazi Germany
In 1920, Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party, promoting a 25-point program encompassing National Socialist goals: rearmament, anti-Semitism, anti-parliamentarism, and anti-Marxism. Hitler became party leader in 1921, employing the SA to suppress political opponents. After a failed coup in 1923, Hitler shifted his strategy to electoral politics. The 1929 crisis further bolstered Nazi support.
The Rise to Power
Nazi maneuvers and social divisions fueled Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor in 1933.
Nazism in Power
The National Socialist State
Hitler consolidated power by:
- Exploiting the Reichstag fire to suspend democratic rights.
- Securing a Nazi majority in subsequent elections.
- Passing the Enabling Act, granting him dictatorial powers.
- Using the Gestapo and SA to enforce conformity.
- Eliminating SA leaders in the “Night of the Long Knives.”
- Assuming the presidency after Hindenburg’s death.
Nazi economic policy focused on autarky and aggressive expansionism.
Racism and Anti-Semitism
Anti-Semitism and racism were central to Nazi ideology:
- The Nuremberg Laws (1935) excluded Jews from German society.
- Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) marked an escalation of anti-Jewish violence.
- The Holocaust, the systematic genocide of Jews during World War II.
Germany’s defeat in World War II exposed the horrors of the Holocaust and led to the condemnation of Nazi leaders as war criminals.