Understanding Science: Methods, Limits, and Historical Evolution
Science is a systematic and organized body of knowledge derived from the study of human activity, utilizing laws and general principles.
Key features of science include its focus on reality, accuracy, and, where possible, mathematical formulation.
Formal Science
Formal sciences, such as logic and mathematics, do not refer to objects observable by the senses. They provide necessary, universal, and consistent information based on the coherence of reason itself.
Empirical Sciences
Empirical sciences are
Read MoreFinancial Assets, Markets, and Portfolio Management
Financial Assets and Derivatives
Asset: An asset is any object, tangible or intangible, that holds value for its owner.
Derivative: A derivative is a financial security whose value is derived from an underlying asset or group of assets.
Valuation Concepts
Capitalize: Estimate Future Values. Discount: Estimate Present Values.
Effective Annual Rate
The effective annual rate is the rate expressed on an annual basis, taking into account compounding interest.
Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return
Read MoreTemperature, Tropism, Taxis, and Food Webs in Ecosystems
Temperature: Definition and Significance
Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. Generally, a hotter object will have a higher temperature. Physically, it is a scalar quantity related to the internal energy of a thermodynamic system. More specifically, it is directly related to the internal energy known as “sensitive energy,” which is the energy associated with the movement of particles in the system, whether in a translational, rotational,
Read MoreWastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation Techniques
Wastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation
Flotation is a process for separating solids of low density or liquid particles from a liquid phase. The separation is accomplished by introducing a gas (usually air) in a liquid phase in the form of bubbles. The liquid phase is subjected to a pressurization process to achieve an operating pressure ranging from 2 atm in the presence of sufficient air to obtain air and water saturation. Then, the air-saturated liquid undergoes a process of depressurization
Read MoreData Warehouse, DSS, and BI Frameworks: Key Concepts
Data Warehouse Development Approaches
| Kimball Approach | Inmon Approach | |
|---|---|---|
| Effort | Data Mart Approach | EDW Approach |
| Scope | One Subject Area | Several Subject Areas |
| Development Time | Months | Years |
| Sources | Only Some Operational and External Systems | Many Operational and External Systems |
| Data Transformations | Low to Medium | High |
| Update Frequency | Hourly, Daily, Weekly | Weekly, Monthly |
| Development Cost | $10,000 to $100,000+ | $1,000,000+ |
| Development Difficulty | Low to Medium | High |
| Data Prerequisite for Sharing | Common with Business Area | Common Across |
The Impact of the 1812 Constitution on Spanish Liberalism
Read MoreThe central supreme board had shown itself incapable of leading the War of Independence on the Spanish side, which would cause its dissolution. Before this happened, in 1810, a process of invitation to the courts was initiated to meet a representative from each provincial board and decide on the organization and the ultimate fate of the central board. At that time, a consultation was organized in the country through the provincial or local authorities on the reforms they should carry out. The results
Earth’s Geosphere: Composition, Minerals, and Resources
The Geosphere: Earth’s Solid Layers
The geosphere is generally a solid layer, although in some areas it may be molten due to high internal temperatures. It consists of rocks, minerals, and metals. The geosphere has three main layers:
- Crust: The outermost solid layer, with a thickness of 27 to 70 km on continents and 6 to 18 km under the oceans.
- Mantle: The intermediate layer, composed of rocks, extending from the crust to a depth of 2,900 km.
- Core: The deepest layer, consisting of an iron-nickel core
Newtonian ‘Vera Causa’ Principle & Darwinian Natural Selection
Newtonian ‘Vera Causa’ Principle and Darwinian Natural Selection
The methodological principle of “vera causa,” either Newtonian or remotely inspired by Darwinian natural selection, is rooted in Isaac Newton’s approach to understanding nature. From a young age, Newton meticulously interrogated nature, collecting data through experience and using it to control any theoretical explanation. This led to a unique methodology, which he believed was essential for philosophical knowledge. Newton established
Read MoreCommercial Contracts: Legal Theory and Key Features
Item 8: Commercial Contracts
General Theory of Commercial Contracts
Commercial contracts are a legal business, laying up, modifying, or extinguishing obligational legal relations of a civil patrimonial character. For a contract to be considered a commercial contract, it must involve a business or an entrepreneur in their trade, or it must fall within the scope of the commercial code. Contractual obligations are those arising from contracts. The biggest difference between civil and commercial matters
Read MoreEuropean Maritime Expansion and the Americas: 15th and 16th Centuries
The Main Objectives of Travel in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, European commerce with the East was done through Constantinople until the Mediterranean and thence across Central Asia.
Portuguese Expeditions
The Portuguese were the first to venture south along the Atlantic:
- African Route: Sailing west, they reached the islands of Madeira (1418) and the Azores (1431). Later, they followed the African coast to the south and reached the Gulf of Guinea (1460). Further on, Bartolomeu Dias reached the