History of the Iberian Peninsula
1. Early History of the Iberian Peninsula
1.2. Pre-Roman Peoples
Tartessos: Occupied most of present-day Andalusia. Their economy was based on agriculture, livestock, and mining. They traded with the Phoenicians and had a monarchical political system supported by local elites.
Galician Peoples: Located in the northwest, influenced by Celtic culture. They traded with the Phoenicians and built fortified villages with concentric defensive structures.
Asturians and Cantabrians: Experienced a stronger Celtic influence.
Basques: The oldest inhabitants of the peninsula. Their economy was primarily agrarian, supplemented by livestock. Women played an active role in society.
Celtiberians: Divided into Arevaci and Vettones, located in the Meseta Central. Their economy was based on livestock, and their cultural legacy includes the Bulls of Guisando.
Iberians: Characterized by a diverse economy (mining, agriculture, livestock, textile industry) and a monarchical political organization with local chiefs in the south (Andalusia) and an aristocratic council of elders influenced by the Greeks in the east (Levante).
1.3. Colonization: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians
In the 6th century BC, the Mediterranean saw significant commercial activity from civilizations like the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians, who expanded their reach by establishing colonies. The Iberian Peninsula became a strategic objective for controlling traditional Phoenician trade routes and expanding into the Atlantic. The Phoenicians aimed to control trade and resources, trading with Tartessos from the 6th century BC. As Tartessos declined, the Carthaginians increased their presence on the peninsula, especially after their defeat by the Greeks at the Battle of Himera. They focused their commercial efforts on the western Mediterranean and Atlantic routes. After the First Punic War, Carthage established dominance over the peninsula. The Second and Third Punic Wars led to the expulsion of Carthaginians and increased Greek penetration in areas previously controlled by the Phoenicians. They founded Malaga, Roses, and Emporion, the latter a settlement for the Greek population that used a currency-based exchange system.
1.5. Romanization Process: Cultural Legacy
Romanization was the process by which Mediterranean peoples integrated into the Roman state and adopted the lifestyle and culture of their conquerors, transforming their language, customs, etc. However, the impact varied across regions. The Roman Republic conquered most of the peninsula except for the Cantabrian strip. Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania. The Roman government did not impose its rule by force and respected the customs of the conquered peoples. Within the peninsula, major resistance was encountered. Invasions disrupted the unity of the Roman world. Hispania was occupied by barbarians and followed an independent evolution, leading to the Visigothic kingdom. Roman and Italic immigrants created pockets of cultural diffusion and political and administrative control in cities like Seville, Cordoba, and Merida. The policies of Julius and Augustus provided the final impetus to this process. An atmosphere of peace and distance from war fronts contributed to economic improvement. A reflection of cultural uniformity was the adoption of Latin. Romanization was evident in the use of Roman names, clothing, acceptance of Roman law, and trade practices.
2. The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages
2.1. Muslim Conquest
The Visigothic monarchy was elective but attempts were made to establish a hereditary succession. King Witiza intended to pass the crown to his son, who died without an heir. The Akhila family then elected a new king, but most of the nobility supported Rodrigo. Witiza’s supporters joined forces with the Muslims to fight Rodrigo. Musa, the Muslim governor, initially sent 400 men led by Tariq, who returned with 7,000 to conquer the peninsula. Rodrigo was defeated at the Battle of Guadalete in 711. The remnants of Rodrigo’s army and local authorities negotiated agreements with Tariq and his followers. Musa landed in Algeciras in 712 and consolidated Muslim rule in Andalusia. Musa’s son dominated Andalusia and signed pacts with local rulers, including capitulation agreements with Murcia and Orihuela. In 714, Musa embarked on an expedition to the north but had to return due to political intrigues. His son Abd-al-Aziz continued the invasion. The invasion was swift because they targeted major cities, granting autonomy to some and establishing pacts. The Hispano population viewed them as liberators as they were exempted from taxes upon converting to Islam. The capitulation agreements, which avoided wars, were also well-received.
2.3. Taifa Kingdoms
After the death of each caliph, his successor was appointed, but Christian rulers often interfered in these appointments. In 1031, Hisham III, the last Umayyad caliph, was deposed, and the Taifa kingdoms were proclaimed. Twenty-six kingdoms emerged, grouped in Andalusia, Slavic regions, and Berber areas, experiencing similar problems and tensions as the Caliphate of Cordoba. The Christians provided aid to the Taifa kingdoms in exchange for financial compensation (parias). To meet these demands, Taifa kings imposed unauthorized taxes according to Islamic law, causing discontent among the population. New Taifa kingdoms arose, including Zaragoza and Seville, the latter dominating the region between the Tagus and Guadalquivir rivers. However, this did not prevent the fall of Toledo to Alfonso VI of Castile. After this, Muslim kingdoms became tributaries to the Castilian king. Possible causes for the Caliphate’s demise include poor infrastructure hindering economic coordination, ethnic divisions between Arabs and Berbers, militarization of power (especially under Almanzor), dynastic usurpation by Sanchuelo or the Hammudids.
2.5. Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization
Muslim society was based on agriculture, crafts, and trade, with significant urban development. In agriculture, new irrigation techniques were introduced, leading to highly productive orchards and increased livestock herds (sheep, mules, horses). The economic base was crafts, but mining (lead, iron, marble, gold) also thrived. Trade flourished between countries and cities in the Mediterranean basin. The currency used was the silver dirham and the gold dinar. The administration was organized around the Caliph, who held judicial and religious authority. The Caliph was advised by a trusted advisor called the hajib. Viziers were ministers who managed centralized tasks. The qadi was in charge of justice. Local prefects administered the territories. State revenues were based on charity and tithes. The social pyramid was structured with Arab noble families at the top, followed by lower classes of artisans and farmers, and slaves at the bottom.