Cosmogony and Scientific Methodology: A Comprehensive Guide
1. What is a Cosmogony?
A cosmogony is a narrative that explains the origin and nature of the universe. It arises from humanity’s innate curiosity to understand the cosmos. Mythical cosmogonies are stories created to explain the universe, its origin, and its composition. These narratives eventually led to the development of cosmologies and the science of the universe, which integrates disciplines like physics, mathematics, and astronomy.
2. What is the Problem of Demarcation?
The problem of demarcation involves distinguishing between science and non-science. It addresses the definition of science proposed by M. Wartofsky, who defines science as a human activity that leads to knowledge based on specific laws and principles. An example of demarcation can be found in biology, where all living species adhere to certain laws, but these laws operate randomly.
3. What Criteria are Used to Classify Scientific Disciplines?
Scientific disciplines are classified based on their subject matter and the methods they employ. Each science utilizes a distinct method, and each set of methods corresponds to a specific criterion of truth. For example, formal sciences do not study observable objects and do not provide information about the physical world. Their statements are based on “reason” or “a priori” knowledge.
4. What is a Formal Science?
Formal sciences are universal and necessary because they study objects that are not observable through the senses. These sciences focus on the consistency and coherence of reasoning used to construct knowledge. They rely on deduction. An example of a formal science is mathematics.
5. What is an Empirical Science?
Empirical sciences are those that begin with the observation of facts and provide information about the world. They are neither universal nor necessary and are based on generalizations derived from experience. They are formed from empirical data. An example is biology.
6. What is a Social Science?
Social science is a specific set of empirical sciences that study human events, which are characterized by intentionality, a phenomenon that is not directly observable. In essence, social sciences are capable of generalization and prediction under conditions of relative neutrality and objectivity. These sciences prioritize understanding. An example is psychology.
7. What are the Differences Between a Cosmology and a Cosmogony?
Cosmology seeks to explain everything about the universe. It incorporates physical cosmology, mathematics, and astronomy into its theories. In contrast, cosmogony utilizes perspectives and approaches that are more or less effective.
8. What is a Sentence “In Fact”?
Sentences “in fact” are those formed from empirical data (repetition/practice). Truth is the correspondence between what is said and reality, and its method is deductive.
9. What Does “Induction” Mean?
Induction is an argument that derives a general law from observable facts in experience.
10. What Constitutes the Deductive Method?
The deductive method is a scientific research method that involves the following steps:
- Observe the facts (note the most important aspects of a phenomenon)
- Formulate hypotheses (based on previous theories or created from scratch)
- Deduce testable consequences (from the hypothesis) using logic and reason
- Contrast and test a number of controllable variables (experiment). If the result is positive, the hypothesis is partially verified and should be tested again until it has been confirmed a large number of times. If the result is negative, the hypothesis is rejected.
- Critically evaluate the correspondence. If we can refute the hypothesis through criticism, we can reject it. However, if it cannot be refuted, we continue to criticize it, recognizing that a hypothesis can never be fully confirmed.
- Establish a law. If the hypothesis is tested multiple times and becomes universal (tentatively), it can be refuted with a new experiment. Predictions derived from a law must be tested.
- Develop theories. Laws are integrated into theories. Science seeks to unify laws consistently, creating what are called law systems, which are theories that help develop new hypotheses.
11. What is a Paradigm?
A paradigm is a set of philosophical ideas, scientific theories, and methodological norms that prevail within a scientific tradition.
12. What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a theory that guides an investigation and is derived from existing theories or from reason.
13. Elements of the Deductive Method
Observe facts, hypothesize, deduce testable consequences, contrast, critically evaluate, establish a law, develop a theory.
14. What is an Experiment?
An experiment is the phase of the deductive method in which the data obtained are compared with the observed facts. Repetition is essential in an experiment, where certain controllable variables are tested.
15. What is the Relationship Between a Hypothesis, a Theory, and a Law?
All three are elements of the deductive method and are used to provide a more or less reasoned explanation for an observed fact.
16. Outline the Principle of Falsifiability
The principle of falsifiability involves demonstrating that a statement is false rather than true, as is done in the hypothetical-deductive method. For example, if I say “all birds have wings,” to verify this using the hypothetical-deductive method, I would observe whether all birds have wings. Conversely, to prove the principle of falsifiability, I would look for a bird without wings.