Alfonso XIII’s Reign and Sociopolitical Shifts in Early 20th Century Spain
Reign of Alfonso XIII
The arrival of Alfonso XIII at the head of state occurred in a Spain affected by the crisis of 1898. His reign unfolded in a world characterized by:
- Expansionism and political and economic imperialism.
- The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire in Balkan Europe, leading to the creation of new countries and causing a collision of interests between the great powers.
- A period of confrontation and alignment in blocks of nations, known as the armed peace, with one bloc led by Germany and another by the United Kingdom and France. This ultimately caused the First World War.
- The triumph of the socialist revolution in Russia.
- A critical stage derived from the conversion of national economies.
- The development of authoritarian forms of government and the emergence of ultranationalist and fascist parties.
Francisco Silvela replaced Sagasta with a program emphasizing regenerationist social and educational issues. To address these, he created a Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, headed by Antonio Garcia Alix, who tried to curb excess fiduciary circulation in the country.
In March 1901, Sagasta was called back to preside over the Executive. He maintained the development of educational work throughout the county. Romanones performed an educational reform intended to relieve teachers of the economic dependence on local councils and politicians. It provided that the salary of primary school teachers be borne by the State in the proportion of two-thirds and families in another third, in a country where the education budget was very low.
Joaquin Costa
Before the disaster of 1898, many intellectuals critically analyzed the national reality. Notable among them was Joaquin Costa, a professor of the Free Institution of Education. His work reflected on the causes of Spanish backwardness, centering on a fraudulent electoral system and corrupt political parties. Regenerationism postulated the transformation of the agrarian countryside through hydraulic works, the deepening of social policies, the expansion of municipal autonomy, and the extent of culture in Spain. Costa’s political action was reduced to the creation of a National Union. Disappointed by the experience and management of Paradise, Joaquin Costa joined the Republican Union, with which he became a deputy. However, illness forced him to retire to Graus. He then announced the need for a revolution carried out by an “iron surgeon” to undertake the necessary transformations. His thinking influenced Canalejas, Maura, and Samuels.
Maura
Maura assumed the leadership of the government in 1907, aiming to enable the political participation of the “neutral mass.” He emphasized the electoral reform law of 1907, which made voting obligatory and allowed the Supreme Court to intervene. He also implemented the Sunday rest law and created the National Institute of Welfare. Maura’s main wish was local government reform to offset political patronage and reform Spain. He proposed the creation of autonomous agencies, *Mancomunidades*, where several deputations could group. The project did not get to be discussed, as the Tragic Week brought down the government.
Canalejas
Canalejas rose as the Liberal Party leader from 1910 until his assassination in 1912. He was then called to head the government of Alfonso XIII and had to solve the social and political crisis caused by the Tragic Week.
He promoted reforms, making military service compulsory from the fifth month and suppressing the consumption tax. He encouraged the separation of Church and State, which entailed changes in the Concordat and opened a crisis with the Vatican. The “padlock law” prohibited new congregations for two years. With reinforced support from the election, the PSOE and UGT increased their presence, suspending constitutional guarantees. The Associations Draft was approved by Congress, but its application was delayed until after his assassination in the Puerta del Sol.
The Tragic Week
After African expeditions by Martinez Campos and the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the period of Spain’s penetration into North Africa began. The Algeciras Conference consolidated the distribution of Moroccan territory between Spain and France under a protectorate. Following attacks on workers constructing a train, troops reacted. The Moroccan campaign mobilized reservists to protect mining enclaves, whose main shareholder was Romanones. Demonstrations were proclaimed in Barcelona. On July 26, 1909, the Workers’ Solidarity organization, a precursor to the National Labor Confederation, proclaimed a general strike. This caused disturbances in the streets, barricades, and fires. The army severely punished the protestors. The balance of the Tragic Week was grim: more than 100 deaths, over 1,000 imprisonments, and five executions. Under pressure from liberals in the press and Parliament, Alfonso XIII forced Maura’s resignation and gave way to Moret.
The Crisis of 1917
During the summer and autumn of 1917, the Restoration monarchy experienced a deep crisis due to significant economic development but an unequal distribution of wages, a political system that did not reflect the new reality, the discontent of the Army, and the instability of the Liberal and Conservative parties. The main forces in the crisis of 1917 were the military, the bourgeoisie, and the workers, who shared a common goal: to overthrow the government and reform the constitution.
There was deep unease among officials in the infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The cause of the discontent stemmed from scheduled examinations for promotion. Following a protest in Barcelona, a Board of Military and Defense was organized, and soon more were created. Romanones initially dissolved them but later accepted them.
A second force was the parliamentarians, who demanded the reopening of the courts that President Dato had closed. This meeting called on all Spanish Members to concentrate in Barcelona. On July 19, 68 parliamentary deputies and senators belonging to Catalan, Republican, and Socialist sectors met, but they could not proceed, and the government dissolved them.
The increase in prices was the origin of a large strike movement that accelerated the unity of action between the UGT and the CNT. The climate created by the irruption of the Juntas, the manifesto of the Parliamentary Assembly, and the railway strike in Valencia led to a call for an indefinite strike. A manifesto outlined the strike’s objectives: rejection of the political system and the creation of an interim government to convene courts. It emphasized the peaceful nature of the movement and stated it did not clash with the army.
The government declared a state of war, and conflicts occurred. The Parliamentary Assembly did not support the movement of socialists and anarchists. The strike committee was arrested on August 14. Leaders Caballero, Saborit, Anguiano, and Besteiro were tried and sentenced.