18th Century Revolutions: America and France
Origins of Conflict in Eighteenth-Century America
In the 18th century, Britain had colonies on the east coast of America, known as the Thirteen Colonies. The American Revolution was the conflict between the settlers of New England and Great Britain, which culminated in the independence of New England.
Economic Issues
The colonies developed their own economic system and saw the mother country as a barrier to their development. Great Britain was interested in trade but not in industry. It also reserved a monopoly on several products, complicating trade between the Thirteen Colonies and the rest of America.
Political Tensions
The colonial pact granted autonomy to the settlers, but there were increasing political tensions. Meetings were held to collect taxes, which the colonists were supposed to pay to Britain but rarely did. This led to conflicts over taxation.
King George III attempted to establish several laws between 1764 and 1766 to regulate colonial taxes, but the colonies protested and boycotted British goods. In 1773, the British government enacted the Tea Act, seeking to monopolize the tea trade, which threatened to ruin American merchants. In response, colonists attacked tea-carrying ships in the Boston Tea Party. Britain responded by blocking the port of Boston and revoking the rights of Massachusetts.
The War of Independence
In 1774, representatives of the Thirteen Colonies met at the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, where they issued a declaration of rights and initiated the first armed movements. The British defeat at Lexington in 1775 fueled the insurgency. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Virginia in 1776, which served as the basis for the Declaration of Independence.
With military aid from France and Spain, the colonists achieved victories at Saratoga in 1778 and Yorktown in 1781. This led to the signing of the Peace of Versailles in 1783, and the United States gained independence.
The Legacy of the American Revolution
The Constitution of 1787 organized the new political order. The new state had a federal structure. The president controlled the executive branch and was elected every four years. George Washington became the first U.S. president. The legislature consisted of a Congress comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, both elected by the people. The judiciary was vested in the Supreme Court, which oversaw the laws and acts of government.
The American Revolution was highly influential, serving as a model for the French Revolution and independence movements throughout the Americas. Its constitution was the first to embody national sovereignty and the separation of powers.
The Outbreak of the French Revolution
The Situation in France Before the Revolution
Around 1789, France was a major power under the Ancien Régime. Several problems plagued the nation:
- Estate Society: The population was divided into privileged and non-privileged estates.
- Economic Crisis: The populace suffered from economic hardship.
- Treasury Deficit: The costs of American wars, the privileged classes’ exemption from taxes, and excessive spending led to a deficit.
- Political Crisis: King Louis XIV lost the support of the people, and the privileged feared losing power due to Enlightenment ideas.
The Reunion of the Estates-General
Ministers of Louis XIV, such as Turgot and Necker, believed that reform was necessary, including requiring the privileged to pay taxes. However, the privileged refused. The Assembly of Notables was called, but the only solution was to convene the Estates-General. Necker managed to double the number of representatives for the Third Estate. The bourgeoisie began to meet in political clubs and disseminate newspapers.
The Beginning of the French Revolution
The Third Estate demanded voting by individual, while the nobility and clergy favored voting by estate to maintain their majority. The representatives of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly. They were locked out of their meeting place but took refuge in the Jeu de Paume (a tennis court) and swore not to disband until a constitution was established. Now known as the Constituent Assembly, they stormed the Bastille on July 14, 1789.
Removing the Old Regime (1789-1792)
The objectives of the Constituent Assembly were to dismantle the Ancien Régime and draft a constitution. On August 4, 1789, they approved a decree abolishing feudal rights, including the tithe, the jurisdiction of the privileged, and granting universal access to all positions. On August 26, they issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, based on freedom, equality, and property. This marked the end of absolutism and the triumph of the liberal revolution.
The Constitution of 1791 concluded the revolutionary process. It established a system with the following characteristics:
- Parliamentary monarchy with recognized national sovereignty and fundamental rights of citizens.
- Division of powers: legislative power in the National Assembly, executive power in the King, and judicial power in the courts.
- The Assembly would be elected by popular vote based on a census.
- Decentralization of administration, dividing France into departments.
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
Opposition to the Reforms
The Constitution of 1791 represented the triumph of the upper bourgeoisie, who wanted to end the revolution. However, the king and the privileged did not accept the changes that curtailed royal sovereignty and privileges. Many privileged individuals emigrated.
After the constitution’s adoption, a new assembly was elected, dominated by moderates. A decree was passed against the property of emigrants, and another required the clergy to swear allegiance to the Constitution. The king vetoed both decrees.
War Abroad and the End of the Monarchy
Under pressure from emigrants and fearing the revolution’s spread, Austria and Prussia declared war on France in April 1792. The advance of European troops was unstoppable. The royal family attempted to flee France in June 1791 but were captured at Varennes and taken prisoner to Paris. The allies threatened the people, who responded by raiding the Tuileries Palace. This marked the end of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic.
Napoleon and the Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon transformed France into an empire. The Consulate was a personalist regime where Napoleon held all the power. The Constitution of Year VIII lacked a bill of rights and separation of powers. Napoleon was appointed Consul for life after defeating the Second Coalition at Marengo.
He modernized French laws with the Civil Code, reformed the economy by creating the Bank of France and the Commercial Code, and promoted education.
Napoleon and Europe
With support from Spain, Napoleon expanded the empire. The Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar in 1805, but the French victory at Austerlitz ended the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Tilsit marked the zenith of Napoleon’s empire. His foreign policy focused on an alliance with Russia and the isolation of Britain through the Continental Blockade.
In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain en route to Portugal, leading to the Peninsular War, which lasted five years and drained the empire’s resources. Napoleon’s attempted invasion of Russia in 1812 failed. The Sixth Coalition (Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria) defeated French troops at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. That same year, Napoleon was defeated in Spain. He abdicated on April 6, 1814. He returned to power for a hundred days but was defeated at Waterloo in 1815 and exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died.
Restoration
During the Restoration, monarchs returned to the power of the Ancien Régime, acting as if the revolution had not occurred. Kings promulgated documents recognizing certain rights to the people.