18th-Century Europe: Societal Shifts & Enlightenment
M BLOCK XI: A Century of Revolution – The International Marseillaise
Learning Objectives
- Explain the basic features that characterized the Ancien Régime in the second half of the 18th century regarding politics, economy, culture, and social organization.
- Identify the major ideas and philosophers of the Enlightenment who criticized the society of the time.
- Place in time and space milestones of the period from the French Revolution and the unification of Italy and Germany.
- Recognize the achievements and progress in the field of freedom and civic and social rights occurring throughout the 19th century, with particular attention to advances in gender equality, assessing its importance in the present.
- Understand the challenges and achievements that characterize the implementation of the liberal system in Spain.
- Learn the basics of the evolution of art forms in the field of fine arts from the Old Regime until the second half of the 19th century, relating them to the thinking and ideology.
- Select, use, and communicate relevant information related to the liberal-democratic ideals and the great nationalist movements that emerged in the 19th century.
Item 1: The Old Regime and the Beginning of the End
It is crucial to understand the essential features of the Old Regime (hereafter AR) in terms of its political system, society, and economy. Also, learn about the new ideas that arose in the philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment.
A Stroll Through 17th-Century Europe
The European map was very different from what we see today in the different countries.
- Spain: Ruled by the Habsburgs, it was a great power in decline after the defeat in the Thirty Years’ War in 1650. It owned European territories such as Naples, Milan, the Netherlands, and Franche-Comté (France), as well as Central and South America, the Philippines, and some points in Africa (Ceuta, Melilla, and Oran).
- Central Europe: Dominated by the Holy Roman Empire, held by the Habsburgs. The Holy Roman Empire was a collection of small independent countries with a common language and culture.
- Italian Peninsula: Also divided into several independent countries, including the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, Genoa, and Venice.
- France: The victor of the Thirty Years’ War, with Louis XIV, it became the great power in Europe.
- England: Ruled by the Stuart dynasty, its big challenge was to unify the territories of the British Isles. It had a large fleet that extended its dominance over the seas.
- Eastern Mediterranean: Dominated by the Ottoman Turkish Empire (Muslim), which tried to enter Europe.
2. What is the Old Regime?
The Old Regime could be defined as the set of political, legal, social, and economic characteristics that marked Europe and its colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries.
3. The Absolute Monarchy of the Ancien Régime
Also called the Divine Right Monarchy, it is characterized by:
- The King holding all branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial) without limit and by the will of God. He makes and breaks laws, dispenses justice, commands the military, etc.
- Extensive propaganda to praise the King. Extreme luxury and the use of religious symbols around his figure. The King does not have to answer to anyone, only to God.
- In short, the King has absolute power and absolute control over every person and asset of the country.
4. A Society of Privilege: The Estate System
An estate is a closed social group to which one belongs almost exclusively by birth, for life, and that does not depend on a person’s wealth but on their role in society.
Society was divided into three estates: nobility, clergy, and commoners (or Third Estate). The first two were privileged, and the third was not.
- Nobility and Clergy: Comprised about 10% of the population. They owned most of the wealth and agricultural properties, did not pay taxes, held the highest offices of state and the army, and had different laws that protected them. Some nobles and clergy had estates, which were territories ceded by the King in which they dispensed justice and applied the rules they wanted, usually abusive.
- Commoners or Third Estate: Made up 90% of the population. This group was very diverse, including poor peasants, middle landowners, artisans, merchants, beggars, vagrants, doctors, lawyers, etc. Some of them were very rich. They paid taxes (tithe) and were excluded by law.
In the 17th century, the most affluent and educated of the Third Estate, a small minority called the bourgeoisie, who were the economic engine of the state, began to demand changes and improvements.
5. A Stagnant and Uninnovative Economy
Agriculture
It was the base of the economy, with 80% of the population working in the fields. They used old tools inherited from the Middle Ages. Yields were low and were intended for subsistence.