World War II: Causes, Key Battles, and Turning Points
Background to the War
Between 1933 and 1939, Japan’s expansionist plans in Asia, Germany’s in Europe, and Italy’s in Ethiopia and Albania marked the passage to the Second World War. These events signaled a significant change in international relations. Among the causes of the Second World War were the humiliation of Germany in the Treaty of Versailles and Italy’s frustration at not seeing the promises made by the Allies regarding their territorial expansion fulfilled. The aggressive policies of the Nazis and Fascists aimed to modify the treaties of 1919 in their favor. Another factor was the indecisive policy of France and Britain in not halting Nazi aggression.
During the 1920s, the idea of peace was consolidated, supported by the signing of treaties between countries to avoid war. However, the crisis of 1929, Hitler’s rise to power, the Japanese imperialist policy in Asia, and the weakness of the League of Nations and the European powers paved the way for war.
The first event that triggered the war was Japan’s invasion of China, marking the beginning of its expansionist plans. This act was condemned by the League of Nations, and Japan subsequently abandoned the organization. Nazi foreign policy aimed to amend the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler pursued a policy of aggression and pressure, which allowed him to violate international agreements and implement the territorial expansion of the Reich. Hitler breached the Treaty of Versailles after leaving the League of Nations, announced the restoration of compulsory military service, and then remilitarized the Rhineland. These actions were not punished.
In Fascist Italy, a similar policy was followed. Mussolini’s imperialist cravings were fulfilled with the conquest of Ethiopia. The League of Nations sanctioned Italy financially and economically, which caused Italy to abandon the organization and move closer to Germany. The Spanish Civil War (1936) was an occasion for the joint action of the fascist powers in support of the revolt. (The Commonwealth was abandoned by early democracy, highlighting the help of the USSR and the International Brigades). The fascist gangs signed the so-called Rome-Berlin Axis, and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, which Italy later joined, directed against the Soviet Union.
The Path to War
Extending Germany’s borders by force was the immediate cause of the outbreak of war. Hitler planned a series of actions to incorporate territories into Germany. The incorporation of Austria, forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles, led to a small international protest. Following the incorporation of Austria, Germany turned against Czechoslovakia, demanding the Sudetenland. The Czech government opposed this, supported by France. Western democracies proposed holding an international conference to resolve the issue.
The Munich Conference was held, attended by Germany, Italy, France, and the United Kingdom. In the agreement, the signatories agreed to the incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany. War was avoided, but the price was a new Nazi success. However, shortly after, the German army invaded Czechoslovakia. Hitler was dissatisfied and annexed more German-populated areas to his territory, thus beginning the conquest of “living space.” This made the United Kingdom and France realize that Germany could only be stopped by force. Only an alliance with the USSR could be decisive in stopping the Nazis, but the two countries, deeply anti-communist, were not enthusiastic about the idea.
Germany had signed the Pact of Steel with Italy, a defensive and offensive alliance. However, the big surprise, just days before the war began, was the non-aggression pact between Germany and Russia. Through this treaty, a part of Poland was offered to the USSR, and Hitler ensured he would only have to fight on one front. Poland was helpless against Germany, and this was a failure for France and Great Britain.
Germany invaded Poland, and days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany. The Second World War had begun. Two alliances faced each other in this war: the Axis (Germany, Italy, and Japan, along with smaller European countries that helped them, such as Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Slovakia) and the Allied armies (Britain, France, the USSR from 1941, and the United States).
The Victories of the Axis (1939-1942)
The first stage of the war saw constant victories for the Axis. In the second stage, the tide of the war changed radically.
A Year of Victories
The invasion of Poland demonstrated the great power of the German armies. France and Britain were unable to help Poland. The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland, which was then divided between the Germans and the Russians. Germany occupied Denmark and Norway by surprise, securing a long coastline against Britain and access to Swedish iron.
The German armies attacked France. France used a similar technique to the Great War, building a great defense on the border with Germany (the Maginot Line). The Germans attacked the French rear through Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands (previously neutral). French and British forces were surprised from the rear and began a retreat. In less than a month, France was defeated. The British, crossing the Channel, managed to save most of their army, preventing the annihilation of the Allied side. Italy, convinced of the Nazis’ victory, entered the war.
The French government resigned, and the country was headed by Marshal Pétain, who requested an armistice with Germany. France accepted its defeat. The country was divided into two: the northern area (including Paris) was under German control, while the south was under the government of Pétain, with its capital in Vichy. This became the Vichy regime, a pro-German regime led by Pétain. General De Gaulle, opposed to this, fled to London, where he encouraged the French to fight in the countryside and in the French colonies.
The Battle of Britain
Germany seemed invincible after three successful campaigns: Poland, Denmark and Norway, and Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg, and France. Only the United Kingdom stood in the way of its victory, so Germany prepared to invade Britain. To ensure the invasion of the British Isles by sea, the Germans launched an air attack, the Battle of Britain, to destroy its defensive capability. Germany bombed military and economic targets and cities in the United Kingdom to sow panic among the population. However, this strengthened the English spirit and encouraged the sympathy of the United States. British aviation eventually defeated Germany, frustrating the invasion of Britain and dealing a blow to the Germans. A British defeat in North Africa and the occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece concealed the failure of the Battle of Britain.
The Invasion of the Soviet Union
Faced with defeat in England, Hitler’s expansionist plans turned east, despite pledges of non-aggression. The German army raided the Soviet Union, achieving great victories. However, the Soviets did not surrender. The Germans advanced to the north, besieging Leningrad, and to the south, occupying Ukraine. In the center, they reached the gates of Moscow. The Soviet defense resisted, and in December, Siberian troops counterattacked. The harshness of the Russian winter forced Hitler’s forces to retreat due to the difficulty of surviving. This defeat was comparable to that experienced in England.