World War I: A Concise Overview
The Quick War
Germany initiated the war with a swift offensive strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan. This plan involved a rapid advance through neutral Belgium and Luxembourg to attack France. Simultaneously, the Austro-Hungarian and a portion of the German army aimed to delay the Russians, capitalizing on their slower mobilization. The goal was to defeat France within six weeks and then redirect all forces against Russia.
The campaign against France unfolded in two phases. The initial phase, the Battle of the Borders, led by General Helmuth von Moltke, saw German forces penetrate French territory through Belgium and Luxembourg, but proved inconclusive. The second phase witnessed an Allied counteroffensive spearheaded by French General Joffre at the Battle of the Marne, forcing a German retreat.
The War of Position
The war on the Western Front transitioned into a stalemate characterized by trench warfare. Armies dug into fixed defensive positions, attempting to achieve a decisive breakthrough, resulting in devastating casualties. Trench warfare became a defining feature, with elaborate systems of trenches, barbed wire barriers, and continuous fire hindering any significant advances. Soldiers endured harsh conditions in these trenches, facing disease, mud, and constant danger.
This new style of warfare necessitated the development of new weapons. Hand grenades, mortars, heavy artillery, flamethrowers, and asphyxiating gases (despite being prohibited by international agreements) were employed. Aviation emerged as a significant element, evolving from reconnaissance to offensive bombing. Tanks, armored vehicles with caterpillar tracks, were introduced, capable of breaching defenses and traversing trenches.
Facing the stalemate on the Western Front, the Central Powers launched a surprise attack on the Eastern Front. However, French offensives in Artois and Champagne failed to break through the German lines.
The War of Attrition
In 1916, the Western Front became the primary theater of war, with a new strategy of attrition employed. Devised by the German high command, this strategy aimed to exhaust the Allied forces. The Battle of Verdun, initiated by the Germans, lasted for four months and inflicted heavy losses on both sides. A similar Allied offensive, the Battle of the Somme, also failed to achieve a breakthrough.
The naval blockade imposed by the Allies forced Germany to engage in the Battle of Jutland, the only major naval battle of the war. The German fleet retreated in the face of British superiority and remained largely confined to port. On the Eastern Front, the war expanded to Mesopotamia and Palestine, where British forces faced Ottoman resistance. The Russians achieved victories in the Caucasus.
The Turning Point
The Russian withdrawal from the war and the entry of the United States shifted the balance of power. The Russian Revolution in March 1917 disrupted the Eastern Front. The United States, initially neutral, became a major supplier and lender to the Allies. In 1915, Germany initiated unrestricted submarine warfare to disrupt Allied shipping, leading to the sinking of American vessels. On April 6, 1917, the US Congress declared war on Germany, altering the dynamics of the conflict.
Several Allied offensives in the spring of 1917 failed. Shortages, rising prices, and deteriorating living conditions eroded public support for the war in Europe. The socialist left opposed the continuation of hostilities.
The End of the Conflict
Russia’s exit allowed Germany to concentrate its forces on the Western Front, hoping for a decisive victory. General Ludendorff launched an offensive to capture Paris, but his exhausted troops were unsuccessful. The Allied counteroffensive, led by French General Foch, forced a German retreat, intensified by subsequent Allied attacks and the arrival of two million American soldiers.
Germany’s allies began to crumble. Bulgaria signed an armistice in September 1918, followed by the Ottoman Empire in October and Austria-Hungary in November. Revolutionary unrest erupted in Germany, forcing the Kaiser to abdicate on November 9. A republic was proclaimed, and two days later, the armistice was signed, ending the Great War.