Pathophysiology and Treatment of Cancer and Diabetes

Posted on Aug 24, 2026 in Nursing

Understanding Cancer: Causes and Symptoms

Cancer is a serious disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells in the body. It can affect any part of the body and is often named according to the organ or tissue where it originates, such as breast cancer or lung cancer.

Common Causes and Etiology

  • Genetic mutations in cells
  • Hereditary factors (family history)
  • Viral and bacterial infections
  • Physical agents such as radiation and UV rays
  • Chemical carcinogens and toxic substances
  • Smoking and tobacco use
  • Alcohol consumption
  • Air pollution
  • Unhealthy diet and obesity
  • Hormonal factors

Signs and Symptoms of Cancer

  • Loss of normal body functions
  • Shortness of breath
  • Chest pain
  • Persistent cough
  • Abdominal pain
  • Feeling of heaviness or discomfort
  • Severe pain
  • Unexplained weight loss
  • Sleeping disorders
  • Fatigue and weakness

Pathophysiology of Cancer Development

Exposure to etiological factors such as radiation, chemicals, and viruses causes DNA damage in normal cells. This DNA damage leads to genetic mutations in somatic cells, resulting in:

  • Activation of oncogenes: Growth-promoting genes become overactive.
  • Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes: Genes that normally control cell division are disabled.
  • Alteration of apoptosis-regulating genes: Programmed cell death is prevented.

As a result, abnormal gene products are formed and normal regulatory proteins are lost. Cells begin to divide rapidly and uncontrollably, leading to the development of a malignant neoplasm (cancer/tumor). These cancer cells eventually invade nearby tissues and spread to distant organs through metastasis.

Cancer Progression Flow Chart

  1. Etiological Factors
  2. Normal Cells
  3. DNA Damage / Abnormal Cells
  4. Gene Mutations in Somatic Cells
  5. Genetic Alterations (Oncogenes, Suppressors, Apoptosis)
  6. Abnormal Cell Proliferation
  7. Malignant Neoplasm (Cancer)

Complications of Cancer

  • Weight loss (cachexia)
  • Constipation
  • Confusion
  • Excessive thirst
  • Frequent urination
  • Hormonal imbalance
  • Nervous system disorders
  • Breathing problems
  • Death in advanced stages

Cancer Treatment Modalities

  • Surgery: Surgical removal of the tumor.
  • Radiotherapy: Uses radiation to destroy cancer cells.
  • Chemotherapy: Uses anticancer drugs such as Methotrexate, Cisplatin, and Mercaptopurine.
  • Immunotherapy: Stimulates the immune system to fight cancer.
  • Targeted Therapy: Targets specific cancer cells with minimal damage to normal cells.
  • Hormonal Therapy: Used for hormone-dependent cancers such as breast and prostate cancer.

Diabetes Mellitus: Types and Pathogenesis

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood. It occurs either due to inadequate production of insulin by the pancreas or the body’s inability to effectively use insulin. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that helps regulate blood sugar levels by facilitating the absorption of glucose into cells for energy.

Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)

Previously known as Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM), this type constitutes about 10% of diabetes cases. It occurs because of the destruction of beta cells (β-cells) in the pancreas due to an autoimmune disorder, leading to an insulin deficiency and increased blood glucose levels. It often develops during childhood or early adulthood.

Causes of Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes primarily occurs due to an autoimmune disorder where the immune system mistakenly attacks insulin-producing beta cells. Contributing factors include:

  • Genetic mutations
  • Viral infections
  • Early childhood exposures
  • Geographical and seasonal patterns

Pathogenesis of Type 1 Diabetes

  1. Genetic Mutations
  2. Autoimmune Disorder
  3. Activation of Cytotoxic T-Cells
  4. Destruction of Beta Cells
  5. Deficiency of Insulin
  6. Increased Blood Glucose Levels
  7. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

Symptoms and Complications of Type 1

Symptoms: Increased thirst, frequent urination, extreme hunger, weight loss, fatigue, and weakness.

Complications: Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Neuropathy, Nephropathy, Retinopathy, and Depression/Anxiety.

Management of Type 1 Diabetes

  • Insulin Therapy
  • Blood Sugar Monitoring
  • Physical Activity
  • Management of Other Health Conditions
  • Carbohydrate Counting

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM)

Previously known as Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM), this type constitutes about 90% of cases. It occurs when cells become insulin resistant. Over time, this can lead to insulin deficiency. It generally occurs later in life (mostly after age 30) due to physical inactivity, obesity, and poor dietary habits.

Causes and Risk Factors for Type 2

  • Genetic factors
  • Obesity
  • Physical inactivity
  • Unhealthy diet
  • Age
  • Gestational diabetes
  • Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)

Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes

  1. Etiological Factors
  2. Receptors Become Insulin Resistant
  3. Insulin Fails to Bind with Receptors
  4. Hypertrophy of Beta Cells
  5. Hyperinsulinemia
  6. Dysfunction or Failure of Beta Cells
  7. Increased Blood Glucose Levels
  8. Prediabetes
  9. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Symptoms and Complications of Type 2

Symptoms: Excessive thirst, frequent urination, increased hunger, weight loss, fatigue, and slow healing.

Complications: Diabetic Neuropathy, Nephropathy, Retinopathy, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Depression/Anxiety.