Understanding Society, State, and Government
Living in Society
Since ancient times, humans have lived in organized groups. From birth, each individual is part of a collective. The family is the simplest form of human group, and it is, in turn, part of a larger group: society.
The terms people, country, and nation are often related to the concept of society. Any society is structured by:
- People who share a territory.
- Shared cultural ties.
- Rulers or political institutions.
The term generally refers to the territory of a country where people or a human community with shared characteristics live. A nation is a group of people in a human society historically established in a territory.
Citizens and Social Norms
Citizens of a sovereign collectivity are obligated to comply with established social norms. The set of rules or laws, how they are created, and the institutions responsible for drafting, applying, and monitoring them are called the political system.
The State
The State is the set of institutions and organizations within a political system that governs a society. The State embodies authority. There are two models:
- Democratic State: Based on national sovereignty, respect, and recognition of the will of the people who inhabit a territory, represented through elections.
- Totalitarian State: Based on sovereignty by an elite or a particular social group not democratically elected.
Territorial Organization of the State
- Unitary State: A single center of political power. A centralized state where constituencies lack territorial sovereignty.
- Federal State: Several territories under a single constitution. The State respects the autonomy of each territory in its internal affairs and exercises sovereignty in matters of general order.
- Autonomic State: A system between the unitary and federal models. The central government cedes a portion of its sovereignty to other institutions (e.g., Spain).
- Confederation: A union of sovereign states for achieving common goals. The union, with its permanent bodies, does not affect the independence of member states.
The Head of State
The highest authority of a State is the head of state. In republics, this is a president. In monarchies and kingdoms, the head of state is a king or queen, a hereditary and lifelong position.
- In absolute or totalitarian monarchies, the monarch is the sole possessor of political sovereignty.
- In constitutional or democratic monarchies, citizens elect their governors and the head of government, but not the head of state.
Legislative Power
Legislative power has two functions: approving laws and controlling the executive power (the government). Parliaments, composed of elected representatives, exercise legislative power.
The Executive Branch
The executive branch, led by the government, organizes the country’s affairs by applying laws. Chaired by a head of government or prime minister, the government is structured into ministries or departments. A key function of the executive branch is preparing annual budgets.
The Judiciary
The judiciary oversees compliance with state laws. Courts apply sanctions to citizens or institutions that violate the law.
Political Parties
Political parties are groups of citizens who share political principles or ideologies.
- Conservative/Right-wing Parties: Generally support traditional values, private property, and a free-market economy with limited state intervention.
- Progressive/Left-wing Parties: Advocate for workers and the lower classes against the wealthy, often favoring state intervention in the economy.
- Centrist Parties: Seek to reconcile right- and left-wing values, adopting moderate positions from both.
Electoral Systems
In democratic systems, citizens elect representatives through universal suffrage in general elections. There are two main types of electoral systems:
- Proportional System: Candidates are elected in proportion to the votes received by their party.
- Majority System: Each constituency has a fixed number of seats. The party with the most votes wins all seats in that constituency. This system favors larger parties.
Open and Closed Lists
Electoral lists contain the names of candidates for political office.
- Open Lists: Voters choose individual candidates within a party.
- Closed Lists: Voters choose a party’s pre-determined list of candidates.
The Spanish Parliament
The Spanish Parliament consists of two chambers:
- Congress of Deputies (Lower House): 350 members elected by proportional representation using closed lists. Constituencies are provinces, with the number of deputies based on population.
- Senate (Upper House): 259 senators. 208 are elected by majority system using open lists (four per province, except for island communities and Ceuta and Melilla). 51 are appointed by regional parliaments.
Following general elections, the king proposes a candidate for prime minister to Parliament. Once elected by Congress, the prime minister appoints a cabinet of ministers, forming the executive branch, which is under the control of both houses of Parliament. The Council of Ministers coordinates the government’s work.
The Judiciary
The judiciary is exercised by courts. The General Council of the Judiciary, with twenty members, governs the judicial system. The Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court are other key judicial bodies.